Live Wildlife Research Articles

Quantifying global colonization pressures of alien vertebrates from wildlife trade

The global trade in live wildlife elevates the risk of biological invasions by increasing colonization pressure (the number of alien species introduced to an area). Yet, our understanding of species traded as aliens remains limited. We created a comprehensive global database on live terrestrial vertebrate trade and use it to investigate the number of traded alien species, and correlates of establishment richness for aliens. We identify 7,780 species involved in this trade globally. Approximately 85.7% of these species are traded as aliens, and 12.2% of aliens establish populations. Countries with greater trading power, higher incomes, and larger human populations import more alien species. These countries, along with island nations, emerge as hotspots for establishment richness of aliens. Colonization pressure and insularity consistently promote establishment richness across countries, while socio-economic factors impact specific taxa. Governments must prioritize policies to mitigate the release or escape of traded animals and protect global biosecurity.

Drone with Mounted Thermal Infrared Cameras for Monitoring Terrestrial Mammals

This study investigates the use of a drone equipped with a thermal camera for recognizing wild mammal species in open areas and to determine the sex and age of red deer (Cervus elaphus) and roe deer (Capreolus capreoulus) in a 13 km2 moor in Denmark. Two separate surveys were conducted: (1) To achieve drone images for the identification of mammals, the drone was tested around a bait place with a live wildlife camera that was often visited by European badger (Meles meles), stone marten (Martes foina), European hare (Lepus europaeus), roe deer and cattle (Bos taurus). The thermal images of wild animal species could be distinguished by their body measures when the drone filmed with the camera pointed perpendicular to the ground in an altitude range of 50–120 m. A PCA ordination showed nonoverlapping body characteristics and MANOVA showed that the combined body measures used were significantly distinctive F = 6.8, p < 0.001. The reactions and behavioral responses of the different species to the altitude and noise of the drone were also tested in this place. (2) On a 13 km2 moor, a drone was used for a population study of deer. Red deer and roe deer were counted and separated by body measures. Red deer individuals could, at the right altitude, be separated into adults and calves, and males and females. Body length was the most conclusive body measure, and therefore a reference measurement in the field is recommended. The frame thermal images were effective in species recognition and for use in population studies of deer, and are thought to be more time-efficient and less invasive than traditional methods. In autumn, the number of stags and the life stage of red deer, as well as the distribution of deer in different types of vegetation, could be determined.

Valorisation of Madagascar’s Wildlife Trade and Wildlife Tourism: What Are the Conservation Benefits?

Wildlife tourism and wildlife trade may appear juxtaposed, but are two, potentially aligning, income generators that could benefit conservation in developing countries. Utilising data sets collated from Madagascar’s Ministère du Tourisme and CITES, respectively, for the period 2007 to 2018, this study estimated levels of income from wildlife tourism and wildlife trade for Madagascar. Between 2007 and 2018, tourism reported yearly incomes ranging from a low of USD 1.4 million up to a high of USD 15.7 million. However, it was unclear what percentage of this figure flowed to benefit local communities. Alternatively, using reported networks for the live wildlife trade, the estimated economic value reaching collectors and/or intermediaries in Madagascar was USD 72,299.80 for the period 2007 to 2018. Both revenue generators operated within different geographical areas, with tourism opportunities presenting themselves to communities adjacent to national parks, while wildlife trade networks were not restricted to protected areas and operated sporadically across Madagascar. Hence, the economic benefits reached different Malagasy participants across the country. The management of both activities needs great care to ensure that environmental impacts and sustainability are core measures on any such activities. Whilst this study shines a light on economic values and novel perspectives regarding these two trade types, it also highlights knowledge gaps, thus indicating where much greater research attentions are required to allow a better understanding of the specific benefits and risks from engaging with both trade types for local Malagasy people and their environments.

Interventions to Reduce Risk for Pathogen Spillover and Early Disease Spread to Prevent Outbreaks, Epidemics, and Pandemics.

The pathogens that cause most emerging infectious diseases in humans originate in animals, particularly wildlife, and then spill over into humans. The accelerating frequency with which humans and domestic animals encounter wildlife because of activities such as land-use change, animal husbandry, and markets and trade in live wildlife has created growing opportunities for pathogen spillover. The risk of pathogen spillover and early disease spread among domestic animals and humans, however, can be reduced by stopping the clearing and degradation of tropical and subtropical forests, improving health and economic security of communities living in emerging infectious disease hotspots, enhancing biosecurity in animal husbandry, shutting down or strictly regulating wildlife markets and trade, and expanding pathogen surveillance. We summarize expert opinions on how to implement these goals to prevent outbreaks, epidemics, and pandemics.

An analysis of Canada's declared live wildlife imports and implications for zoonotic disease risk

In Canada, there have been calls for increased research into and surveillance of wildlife trade and associated zoonotic disease risks. We provide the first comprehensive analysis of Canadian live wildlife imports over a 7-year period (2014–2020), based on data from federal government databases obtained via Access to Information requests. A total of 1 820 313 individual animals (including wild-caught and captive-bred animals but excluding fish, invertebrates, Columbiformes (pigeons), and Galliformes (game birds)), from 1028 documented import records, were imported into Canada during 2014–2020. Birds were the most imported taxonomic class (51%), followed by reptiles (28%), amphibians (19%), and mammals (2%). In total, 22 taxonomic orders from 79 countries were recorded as imported. Approximately half of the animals (49%) were imported for the exotic pet market. Based on existing literature and a review of the Canadian regulatory apparatus, we gesture to these importations' potential implications for zoonotic disease risk and discuss potential biosecurity challenges at the Canadian border. Finally, we identify data gaps that prevent an extensive assessment of the zoonotic disease risk of live wildlife imports. We recommend data collection for all wildlife importation and improved coordination between agencies to accurately assess zoonotic disease risk.

Domestic networks contribute to the diversity and composition of live wildlife trafficked in urban markets in Peru

Amazonian countries have historically sourced the international wildlife trade. However, little is known about their domestic trade, which is often overlooked in estimates of trafficking. Peruvian law prohibits the unauthorized trade and possession of wildlife, but illegal sales are common in urban markets. To describe the dynamics, diversity, and composition of this illegal trade, we surveyed live wildlife for sale in urban markets in 16 Peruvian departments from 2007 to 2012. We identified the main hotspots of market trafficking, detected 193 species being sold alive, and estimate that 0.35–1.25 million animals were trafficked in this period. Iquitos, Lima, Pucallpa, and Tumbes were the most active and diverse trafficking nodes. Amazonian cities trafficked mostly local species, whereas in other cities the proportion of local species varied significantly (39–67%). Species dissimilarity across cities was high and correlated with their distance along trafficking routes. To assess if the market-based trade was representative of the national trade, we compared species richness in markets with that of country-wide confiscations. At least 430 species were confiscated in Peru between 2001 and 2019, but only 50% of species overlapped with markets in the same cities and period of our surveys. Our data suggest that urban markets are connected in a structured network that provides consumers with a diverse selection of species from across the country. Authorities should consider organizational aspects of trafficking networks to ensure success. Failure to eradicate wildlife trafficking in markets constitutes a serious threat to wildlife conservation and One Health in Peru and beyond.

The Huanan Seafood Wholesale Market in Wuhan was the early epicenter of the COVID-19 pandemic.

Understanding how severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) emerged in 2019 is critical to preventing zoonotic outbreaks before they become the next pandemic. The Huanan Seafood Wholesale Market in Wuhan, China, was identified as a likely source of cases in early reports but later this conclusion became controversial. We show the earliest known COVID-19 cases from December 2019, including those without reported direct links, were geographically centered on this market. We report that live SARS-CoV-2 susceptible mammals were sold at the market in late 2019 and, within the market, SARS-CoV-2-positive environmental samples were spatially associated with vendors selling live mammals. While there is insufficient evidence to define upstream events, and exact circumstances remain obscure, our analyses indicate that the emergence of SARS-CoV-2 occurred via the live wildlife trade in China, and show that the Huanan market was the epicenter of the COVID-19 pandemic.

Impact of COVID‐19 on wild meat trade in Nigerian markets

Impact of <scp>COVID</scp>‐19 on wild meat trade in Nigerian markets

Testimony of Chimène Keitner Before the Senate Judiciary Committee on 'The Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act, Coronavirus, and Addressing China’s Culpability'

On June 23, 2020, the Senate Judiciary Committee held a hearing Committee on “The Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act, Corona-virus, and Addressing China’s Culpability.” This document contains the written testimony of Professor Chimène Keitner, as well as responses to 39 questions for the record posed by members of the committee. Professor Keitner’s opening statement emphasized three main points. First, the United States has more to lose than any other country by removing the shield of foreign sovereign immunity for a pandemic. Second, private litigation will not bring China to the negotiating table, and it will not produce answers or compensation for U.S. victims. Instead, Congress should focus on the inadequate federal response to COVID-19, and on restoring U.S. leadership in global public health. The questions for the record covered issues including the FSIA, other obstacles to obtaining damages from civil suits, the consequences of domestic suits against foreign states, alternative methods for pursuing accountability, U.S. exposure to litigation risk, discovery of U.S. government records in cases against China, regulating live wildlife markets and the international wildlife trade, and President Trump’s praise of China’s COVID-19 response.On July 20, Senator Martha McSally (R-AZ) and seven Republican cosponsors introduced a new bill entitled the “Civil Justice for Victims of COVID Act” that combines features of previous bills introduced to amend the Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act (FSIA) “to strip foreign sovereign immunity of certain foreign states to secure justice for victims of novel corona-virus in the United States.” A business meeting to consider the bill, along with several judicial nominations, was scheduled for July 30.

What We Need to Consider During and After the SARS-CoV-2 Pandemic.

Even though extreme containment and mitigation strategies were implemented by numerous governments around the world to slow down the spread of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2), the number of critically ill patients and fatalities keeps rising. This crisis has highlighted the socioeconomic disparities of health care systems within and among countries. As new CoVID policies and responses are implemented to lessen the impact of the virus, it is imperative (1) to consider additional mitigation strategies critical for the development of effective countermeasures, (2) to promote long-term policies and strict regulations of the trade of wildlife and live animal markets, and (3) to advocate for necessary funding and investments in global health, specifically for the prevention of and response to natural and manmade pandemics. This document considers some of these challenges.

Facts about Wildlife Diseases: Bats and Coronaviruses

Bats make valuable contributions to natural ecosystems and provide benefits to people. We explain below how some unusual physical adaptations allow bats to harbor viruses that cause no harm to themselves but cause grave illness in humans. Transmission of these pathogens from bats to humans can occur only when humans have close interactions with bats and contact with their bodily fluids. A number of strategies could reduce the likelihood of bat viruses crossing over to humans, such as restrictions on harvesting of bats as bushmeat, curtailment of live wildlife markets, enforcement of regulations on illegal wildlife trade, and limiting deforestation and cave vandalism to reduce movement of bats into close proximity to humans. Enhancing efforts to protect bat roosts can reduce the likelihood of future zoonotic disease pandemics while also increasing the natural pest reduction services bats provide as they consume insects that cause damage to agronomic crops. Protecting bat roosts can also benefit human health by ensuring bats continue to consume mosquitos responsible for transmitting diseases such as Zika, Dengue, Malaria, and Chikungunya.

Dealing in deadly pathogens: Taking stock of the legal trade in live wildlife and potential risks to human health

Zoonotic diseases cause millions of deaths every year. Diseases such as Ebola, severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), and avian influenza cause economic losses at the global level and jeopardize diplomatic relations between countries. As wildlife are the source of at least 70% of all emerging diseases and given the on-going concerns associated with wildlife trade as a disease transmission mechanism, we provide a ‘global snapshot’ of the legal trade in live wild animals and take stock of the potential health risks that it poses to global human health. Our analysis showed that 11,569,796 individual live wild animals, representing 1316 different species were exported from 189 different countries between 2012 and 2016. China was the largest exporter of live mammals (with 98,979 animals representing 58.7% of global trade). Nicaragua was the largest exporter of live amphibians (with 122,592 animals representing 53.8% of global trade). South Africa was the largest exporter of live birds (with 889,607 animals representing 39.2% of global trade). Peru was the largest exporter of live reptiles (with 1,675,490 animals representing 18.8% of global trade). Our analysis showed that mostly the USA and other high-income countries, the largest importers, drive the live animal trade. High-income countries and not the countries where wildlife diseases and pathogens are more likely to occur reported almost all of the disease reports to the World Organisation for Animal Health. Based on our findings, we discuss how maximising trade bans; working on human behaviour change and improving regulatory efforts to improve surveillance will decrease the risk of future pandemics, epidemics and outbreaks.

The rash that leads to eschar formation

When confronted with an existent or evolving eschar, the history is often the most important factor used to put the lesion into proper context. Determining whether the patient has a past medical history of significance, such as renal failure or diabetes mellitus, exposure to dead or live wildlife, or underwent a recent surgical procedure, can help differentiate between many etiologies of eschars. Similarly, the patient’s overall clinical condition and the presence or absence of fever can allow infectious processes to be differentiated from other causes. This contribution is intended to help dermatologists identify and manage these various dermatologic conditions, as well as provide an algorithm that can be utilized when approaching a patient presenting with an eschar.

A review of global trends in CITES live wildlife confiscations

We assessed the global scope and scale of confiscated live wild vertebrates using information from the annual Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Flora and Fauna (CITES) reports. These reports documented a total of 64,143 individual animals (from 359 species), confiscated by 54 countries party to CITES, between 2010 and 2014. Reptiles represented 95% of individuals seized and posed a particular management challenge during this time. From a conservation perspective, 19% of all individuals reported as seized are currently considered as “Threatened” according to the IUCN Red List and 1% are listed on CITES Appendix I. During this time period, relevant national enforcement agencies have had to effectively detect and quickly deal with illegal live shipments involving a diverse array of vertebrate species with varying psychological attributes, physiological attributes and conservation value. However, we raise pre-existing concerns that CITES records are incomplete, with no data on live seizures provided by 70% of countries party to CITES. Data on the disposal of confiscated live animals is also lacking as providing them is not currently a formal CITES requirement. This lack of information impedes the proper allocation of available resources and prevents the effective monitoring and evaluation of management outcomes. Therefore, we recommend that the management authorities improve reporting compliance, and we encourage the CITES trade database (and other associate national, regional and global databases) to include information on the disposal of all live seizures.

Understanding the illegal trade of live wildlife species in Peru

There is only scant empirical field research that explores the structures of the wildlife trade throughout the world. This study describes the processes that take place before, during and after wildlife is traded illegally in Peru through the words and experiences of the actors involved. This analysis utilizes formal interviews (N = 47), observations and thick descriptions in order to contextualize the processes of catching, selling, buying and rescuing wild fauna. Wildlife trade across Peru is found to be opportunistic and informal. The actors involved in this commerce are best described as ordinary citizens looking to supplement their low incomes.

Electric elephants and the lively/lethal energies of wildlife documentary film

Amid growing enthusiasm for documentary filmmaking as a more‐than‐human research methodology, particularly in geography, I interject a cautionary reflection on the possibilities and limitations of this medium, emphasising documentary film production's effects on nonhuman life. From one of the first films ever made, in which Thomas Edison electrocutes Topsy the elephant, to contemporary wildlife documentaries that observe the lives and deaths of animals, film's affective potential to electrify, animate or enliven has existed in tension with its reliance on an encounterable, killable and invade‐able animal life. Accordingly, this paper first briefly reviews the emerging context of filmmaking as a research tool for more‐than‐human or animal geographies, focused on the relationship between animal documentary film and affect. I then complicate this lively energy through an examination of the conditions of production for animal film, particularly wildlife documentary, underscoring the speciesism that positions animals as disposable objects. Drawing on historical and contemporary examples as well as my own ambivalent experience making a short research film on wild animals circulating within global live wildlife trade, I show that a reliance on an encounterable animal, and a persistent taking of or impinging on animal life, underpins wildlife documentary film's ability to bring animals to life on film screens. At a time when documentary filmmaking is poised to become a dominant method in more‐than‐human geography and animal studies more broadly, this long history of violence, or film's lethal energies, must be considered more centrally.

A biochemical approach for identifying plastics exposure in live wildlife

Summary Plastic pollution is a long‐standing ubiquitous issue. Global use of plastics is continuing to rise, and there is increasing interest in understanding the prevalence and risk associated with exposure of wildlife to plastics, particularly in the marine environment. In order To facilitate an assessment of ingestion of plastics in seabird populations, we developed a minimally invasive tool that allows for detection of exposure to plastics. Using a simple swabbing technique in which the waxy preen oil is expressed from the uropygial gland of birds, we successfully tested for the presence of three common plasticizers: dimethyl, dibutyl and diethylhexyl phthalate [dimethyl phthalate, dibutyl phthalate and bis(2‐ethylhexyl)‐phthalate, respectively]. These plasticizers are prevalent in the manufacturing of plastic end‐user items which often end up in the marine environment. Using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry and protocols to reduce background contamination, we were confidently able to detect targeted plasticizers at low levels. The method described has broad applicability for detecting plastics exposure in wildlife at individual, population and species levels. Furthermore, the approach can be readily modified as needed to survey for plastics exposure in taxa other than seabirds. Applying the simple, minimally invasive approach we describe here is particularly appealing for detecting plastics exposure at population and species levels, it shows promise for quantification and it has no observed detrimental impacts to wildlife.

Suggestions for the Improvement of the Invasive Alien Species Management in Korea - A Comparative Analysis of the Legal Framework for Invasive Alien Species between Japan and Korea

Introduction, establishment and invasion of alien species have caused worldwide environmental losses. To prevent the adverse effects of invasive alien species on ecosystems, human safety and agriculture, forestry and fisheries, Japan has enacted the Invasive Alien Species Act since 2005. Invasive Alien Species (IAS) and Uncategorized Alien Species (UAS) have been designated based on the potential adverse risks of alien species on ecosystems in Japan. The regulation on IAS and UAS have greatly reduced the importation of live wildlife in Japan, and these regulation system have been considered effective for reducing the introduction of alien species into Japan. In Korea, the harmful non-indigenous species has been regulated by the Natural Environment Conservation Act since 1998. According to the Act on Preservation and Use of Biodiversity Act (Biodiversity Act) that has been entered into force in February 2013, ecological risk assessment should be conducted for the import of potentially harmful alien species. This Act also covers the regulation of the alien species that seriously damage ecosystems (ecosystem-disturbing species), previously designated as harmful non-indigenous species. The procedures for the designation, import approval of the potentially harmful alien species and communication with stakeholder need to be improved for the efficient enforcement of the new Biodiversity Act in Korea.

Tackling the Problems of Emergence, Re-Emergence and Maintenance of Zoonoses by Wildlife Reservoirs in the Twenty First Century

Wildlife species have played a central role in the emergence, re-emergence and maintenance of major zoonotic diseases that pose serious threats to public health worldwide. These zoonoses are associated with high morbidity and mortality. The human immunodeficiency virus alone infects 33.3 million people worldwide, causing 1.8 million deaths and 1.9 million new cases in sub-Saharan Africa yearly. Human-wildlife contacts that result in zoonotic disease transmission include; the consumption of bushmeat, live wildlife trade, hunting and visits to game reserves. Despite the benefits derived from wildlife by several nations especially in the provision of animal protein requirements and the development of national economies, these contacts expose the public globally to the risk of zoonoses from wildlife reservoirs. Tackling these problems requires educating the public of the risk of zoonoses and the possible ways of contracting them from wildlife, vaccination of humans and wildlife against vaccinable zoonoses, wildlife disease surveillance, veterinary inspection of bushmeat before consumption, enforcement of regulations relating to wildlife disease management, fertility control and culling. Stake holders in the areas of public and animal health at local, national and international levels as well as non-governmental organizations should support in the funding of wildlife disease management programmes so as to curtail this menace.

Patient-Centered Medical Homes Offer a Model for Better, Cheaper Health Care

nated from wild nonhuman primate and rodent species, including baboon, chimpanzee, mangabey, guenon, green monkey, cane rat, and rat. Pathogen screening identified retroviruses (4 SFV strains), herpesviruses (cytomegalovirus and lymphocryptovirus), or both in 12 nonhuman primate tissue samples. “Because most emerging infectious diseases of humans are originating in animals, it is of concern that even in this small number of samples from a limited number of animal species, it was possible to identify retroviruses and herpesviruses of potential concern for human populations,” said Gerald Keusch, MD, who was not involved with the research. Keusch, a professor of medicine and international health at Boston University, cochaired the 2009 surveillance and response report with Pappaioanou. None of the samples contained SIV or STLV, which have adapted to humans and spread as HIV and human T-lymphotropic virus (which is capable of causing leukemia, lymphoma, and neurologic disease), respectively; however, SIV and STLV are often present in specimens at bushmeat markets and in hunted nonhuman primates. None of the rodent samples carried viruses: all were negative for leptospira, anthrax, herpesviruses, filoviruses, paramyxoviruses, coronaviruses, flaviviruses, and orthopoxviruses. Broader surveillance is needed to expand the study’s findings, which only begin to paint a picture of the potential risks of imported wildlife products and do not address live wildlife. “We need more and smarter surveillance of the wildlife trade, more control over what is being transported across national boundaries, more and stricter law enforcement measures to stop individuals involved in the business, and better and more meaningful ways to inform the public about the inherent dangers in a believable manner,” said Keusch. “In terms of global spread of infectious diseases, wildlife may be the mosquitoes of the 21st century: effective, elusive, and damned hard to stop.”