Succession Of Lithofacies Research Articles

Lateral variation in sandstone lithofacies from conventional core, Scotian Basin: implications for reservoir quality and connectivity 1This article is one of a series of papers published in this CJES Special Issue on the theme of Mesozoic–Cenozoic geology of the Scotian Basin. 2Geological Survey of Canada Contribution 20120021.

Facies analysis in outcrops on land is strongly dependent on the lateral variability of lithofacies. Interpretation of conventional core in wells relies principally on the vertical succession of lithofacies. To better understand depositional environments and reservoir sandstone connectivity, the lithofacies of reservoir sandstones sampled in conventional core were correlated laterally through two sets of closely spaced wells in the Scotian Basin: in the Barremian–Albian succession around the Panuke–Cohasset field and in the Late Jurassic succession west of the Venture field. Regional correlation by gamma logs is confirmed by lithologically similar transgressive units including shelly mudstones or coals. A standard scheme of lithofacies and recognition of three types of parasequences were used for comparisons between wells. Some transgressive surfaces are of limited extent and may represent delta distributary switching and subsidence rather than regional changes in sea level. Major sandstone packets extend at least 10–30 km laterally, but commonly show lateral changes in lithofacies, and some are bounded by the margins of incised valleys. Such packages show poor correlation of lithofacies with porosity and permeability, probably because of the variable effects of diagenesis. Lateral transitions from tidal estuary sandstones in Panuke B-90 to thick-bedded river-mouth turbidites in Lawrence D-14, over a distance of 15 km, demonstrates the scale of delta lobes and confirms that sharp-based sandstone beds are turbidites related to river floods, not storm deposits. Similar lateral transitions in the Venture field are on a similar scale and pass distally into prodeltaic muddy landslide deposits.

Stratigraphic organization and predictability of mixed coarse‐grained and fine‐grained successions in an upper slope Pleistocene turbidite system of the Peri‐Adriatic basin

ABSTRACTThe early Pleistocene clastic succession of the Peri‐Adriatic basin, eastern central Italy, records the filling of a series of piggyback sub‐basins that formed in response to the development of the eastward‐verging Apennine fold‐thrust belt. During the Gelasian (2·588 to 1·806 Ma), large volumes of Apennine‐derived sediments were routed to these basins through a number of slope turbidite systems. Using a comprehensive outcrop‐based dataset, the current study documents the depositional processes, stratigraphic organization, foraminiferal age and palaeodepth, and stratigraphic evolution of one of these systems exposed in the surroundings of the Castignano village. Analysis of foraminiferal assemblages consistently indicates Gelasian deposition in upper bathyal water depths. Sediments exposed in the study area can be broken into seven main lithofacies, reflecting specific gravity‐induced depositional elements and slope background deposition: (i) clast‐supported conglomerates (conglomerate channel‐fill); (ii) amalgamated sandstones (late stage sandstone channel‐fill); (iii) medium to thick‐bedded tabular sandstones (frontal splay sandstones); (iv) thin to thick‐bedded channelized sandstones (sandy channel‐fill); (v) medium to very thin‐bedded sandstones and mudstones (levée‐overbank deposits); (vi) pebbly mudstones and chaotic beds (mudstone‐rich mass‐transport deposits); and (vii) massive mudstones (hemipelagic deposits). Individual lithofacies combine vertically and laterally to form decametre‐scale, disconformably bounded, fining‐upward lithofacies successions that, in turn, stack to form slope valley fills bounded by deeply incised erosion surfaces. A hierarchical approach to the physical stratigraphy of the slope system indicates that it has evolved through multiple cycles of waxing then waning flow energy at multiple scales and that its packaging can be described in terms of a six‐fold hierarchy of architectural elements and bounding surfaces. In this scheme, the whole system (sixth‐order element) is comprised of three distinct fifth‐order stratigraphic cycles (valley fills), which define sixth‐order initiation, growth and retreat phases of slope deposition, respectively; they are separated by discrete periods of entrenchment that generated erosional valleys interpreted to record fifth‐order initiation phases. Backfilling of individual valleys progressed through deposition of two vertically stacked lithofacies successions (fourth‐order elements), which record fifth‐order growth and retreat phases. Fourth‐order initiation phases are represented by erosional surfaces bounding lithofacies successions. The component lithofacies (third‐order element) record fourth‐order growth and retreat phases. Map trends of erosional valleys and palaeocurrent indicators converge to indicate that the sea floor bathymetric expression of a developing thrust‐related anticline markedly influenced the downslope transport direction of gravity currents and was sufficient to cause a major diversion of the turbidite system around the growing structure. This field‐based study permits the development of a sedimentological model that predicts the evolutionary style of mixed coarse‐grained and fine‐grained turbidite slope systems, the internal distribution of reservoir and non‐reservoir lithofacies within them, and has the potential to serve as an analogue for seismic or outcrop‐based studies of slope valley fills developed in actively deforming structural settings and under severe icehouse regimes.

Sedimentary environment and tectonic controls of the Snochowice Beds (Lower Jurassic, western margin of the Holy Cross Mountains, Poland)

The Snochowice Beds represent the lowermost part of the Lower Jurassic succession in the western part of the Mesozoic margin of the Holy Cross Mountains (Central Poland). This thick, gravelly has a different lithological character to other Lower Jurassic sandy and fine-grained deposits. Eight lithofacies have been distinguished, mainly gravelly and sandy, grouped into four genetic associations: M – massive gravels, interpreted as clast-rich debris flow deposits, G – horizontally to cross-stratified gravels, interpreted as gravelly bars and bedforms, S – cross-stratified and massive sandstones, interpreted as sandy bars and bedforms and F – massive mudstones and claystones, generally fine-grained deposits, interpreted as overbank deposits. Analysis of depositional geometry and lithofacies successions allowed reconstruction of the sedimentary environment: landforms of alluvial fan type, formed mainly by braided river processes and rarely by sediment gravity flows. A decrease in the thickness and content of gravelly lithofacies towards the north and north-east is documented. Analysis of transport directions has revealed that the clastic material was transported toward the north and north-east, perpendicular to the main faults fringing the basin. Depositional geometry facies and palaeocurrent patterns of the Snochowice Beds indicate that sedimentation was controlled by tectonic activity

Cyclic Sedimentation of the Barakar Formation, Singrauli Coalfield, India: Statistical Assessment from Borehole Logs

The succession of lithofacies of a part of the Barakar Formation of the Singrauli coalfield has been studied by statistical techniques. The lithologies have been grouped under five facies states viz. coarse-, medium-, and fine-grained sandstones, shale and coal for statistical analyses. Markov chain analysis indicates the arrangement of Barakar lithofacies in the form of fining-upward cycles. A complete cycle consists of conglomerate or coarse-grained sandstone at the base sequentially succeeded by medium- and fine-grained sandstones, shales and coal seam at the top. The entropy analysis puts the Barakar cycles in A-4 type of cyclicity, which consists of different proportions of lower-, side- and upper-truncated cycles of lithologic states. Regression analysis indicates a sympathetic relationship between total thickness of strata (net subsidence) and number of coal cycles and an antipathic relationship between average thickness and number of coal cycles. The cyclic sedimentation of the Barakar Formation was controlled by autocyclic process, which occurred due to the lateral migration of streams triggered by intrabasinal differential subsidence. In many instances, the clastic sediments issued from the laterally migrating rivers interrupted the sedimentation resulting in thinner cycles in areas where the numbers of cycles are more. Principal component and multivariate regression analyses suggest that the net subsidence of the basin is mostly controlled by number and thickness of sandstone beds and coal seams.

Upper Quaternary evolution of the Mamaia Lake area (Romanian Black Sea shore)

Late Quaternary climate changes triggered the succession of several sedimentary environments, especially in the areas close to the current Romanian Black Sea shoreline. These have resulted in the succession of continental and marine lithofacies. The Mamaia karst depression consists of a sedimentary fill, which contains two marine transgression sequences (Surozhian and Holocene) divided by a sedimentary break, corresponding to the MIS 2 regression. The samples from two cores from the Mamaia barrier beach were analysed for lithology, texture, mineralogy, and fauna (molluscs, foraminifera, and ostracods).

Tribes Hill–Rochdale formations in east Laurentia: proxies for Early Ordovician (Tremadocian) eustasy on a tropical passive margin (New York and west Vermont)

AbstractSlow subsidence and tectonic quiescence along the New York Promontory margin of Laurentia mean that the carbonate-dominated Tribes Hill and overlying Rochdale formations serve as proxies for the magnitude and timing of Tremadocian eustatic changes. Both formations are unconformity-bound, deepening–shoaling, depositional sequences that double in thickness from the craton into the parautochthonous, western Appalachian Mountains. A consistent, ‘layer cake’ succession of member-level units of the formations persists through this region. The Tribes Hill Formation (late early Tremadocian, late Skullrockian, late Fauna B–Rossodus manitouensisChron) unconformably overlies the terminal Cambrian Little Falls Formation as the lowest Ordovician unit on the New York Promontory. It was deposited during the strong early Tremadocian, or Stonehenge, transgression that inundated Laurentia, brought dysoxic/anoxic (d/a) slope water onto the shelf and led to deposition of the Schaghticoke d/a interval (black mudstone and ‘ribbon limestone’) on the Laurentian continental slope. The uniform lithofacies succession of the Tribes Hill includes a lower sand-rich member; a middle, dark grey to black mudstone that records d/a in eastern exposures; and an upper, shoaling-up carbonate highstand facies. A widespread (12000+ km2) thrombolitic interval in the highstand carbonate suggests the New York Promontory was rimmed by thrombolites during deposition of the Tribes Hill. Offlap and erosion of the Tribes Hill was followed by the relatively feeble sea-level rise of the Rochdale transgression (new) in Laurentia, and deposition of the Rochdale Formation. The Rochdale transgression, correlated with theKierograptusDrowning Interval in Baltica, marks a eustatic rise. The Rochdale Formation represents a short Early Ordovician interval (early late Tremadocian, middle–late Stairsian,Macerodus dianaeChron). It correlates with a depositional sequence that forms the middle Boat Harbour Formation in west Newfoundland and with the Rte 299 d/a interval on the east Laurentian slope. The Rochdale has a lower carbonate with abundant quartz silt (Comstock Member, new) and an upper, thrombolitic (Hawk Member, new) high-stand facies. Tribes Hill and Rochdale faunas are mollusc-rich, generally trilobite-poor, and have low diversity, Laurentian faunal province conodonts.Ulrichodina rutnikaLanding n. sp. is rare in Rochdale conodont assemblages. Trilobites are also low in diversity, but locally form coquinas in the middle Tribes Hill. The poorly preserved Rochdale trilobites include the bathyuridRandaynia, at least two hystricurid species andLeiostegium.

Cyclic sedimentation of the Barren Measures Formation (Damuda Group), Talchir Gondwana basin: Statistical appraisal from borehole logs

The succession of lithofacies of a part of the Barren Measures Formation of the Talchir Gondwana basin has been studied by statistical techniques. The lithologies have been grouped under five facies states viz coarse-, medium-, and fine-grained sandstones, shale and coal for statistical analyses. Markov chain analysis indicates the arrangement of Barren Measures lithofacies in the form of fining upward cycles. A complete cycle consists of conglomerate or coarse-grained sandstone at the base sequentially succeeded by medium-and fine-grained sandstones, shales and coal at the top. The entropy analysis puts the Barren Measures cycles into A-4 type cyclicity, which consists of different proportions of lower, upper and side truncated cycles of lithologic states. Regression analysis indicates a sympathetic relationship between total thickness of strata (net subsidence) and number of cycles and an antipathic relationship between average thickness and number of sedimentary cycles. The cyclic sedimentation of the Barren Measures Formation was controlled by autocyclic process which occurred due to the lateral migration of streams triggered by intrabasinal differential subsidence. In many instances, the clastic sediments from the laterally migrating rivers interrupted the cyclic sedimentation resulting in thinner cycles in areas where the number of cycles are more. Principal component and multivariate regression analyses suggest that the net subsidence of the basin is mostly controlled by the thickness of sandstones, shale beds and coal stringers.

Sedimentological analysis of the subsurface Mulga Downs Group in the central part of the Darling Basin, western New South Wales

Detailed sedimentological analysis, using lithological samples (cores and cuttings) and wireline-log information, has been carried out on the Devonian subsurface strata of the Darling Basin, to aid in the development of a geological model for the Mulga Downs Group in the Blantyre, southern Pondie Range and western Neckarboo Sub-basins. The Mulga Downs Group displays five different lithofacies successions, which are visible in both vertical and horizontal sections. The lower part of the Mulga Downs Group (Snake Cave Interval) is a succession composed mainly of braided fluvial and meandering fluvial lithofacies, with minor fluvial–shallow lacustrine complex lithofacies. The upper part of the Mulga Downs Group (Ravendale Interval) contains braided fluvial and meandering fluvial lithofacies passing upwards into estuarine tidal channel deposits and a nearshore lithofacies complex contemporaneous with a nearshore braided-deltaplain complex lithofacies. The results of this study, which included core and cutting descriptions and geophysical log (mainly gamma-ray logs) correlations, and comparisons with other large sandstone- and siltstone-rich sediment-supply fluvial systems in the subsurface data in the central part of the Darling Basin, suggest that the Mulga Downs Group has excellent reservoir potential and stratigraphic-trap configuration.

Stratigraphic evolution from shoreface to shelf-indenting channel depositional systems during transgression: Insights from the lower Pliocene Súa Member of the basal Upper Onzole Formation, Borbón Basin, northwest Ecuador

Shelf-indenting canyons and their tributary systems are fairly common constituents of Quaternary shelves of active continental margins, but they have been rarely reported from older successions. Recognition of these prominent geomorphologic features in the ancient record has important implications not only for a proper understanding of shoreface-to-shelf depositional systems, but also from a petroleum exploration standpoint as they represent efficient conduits for moving coarse-grained river- and nearshore-borne sediments to the adjacent slope even during periods of relative rise in sea level. Coastal exposures of the lower Pliocene Súa Member in the surroundings of Súa (northwest Ecuador), preserve the unusual juxtaposition of incising submarine channels onto nearshore deposits. This succession accumulated along a narrow, active continental margin during tectonically induced transgression and affords a rare opportunity to evaluate the stratigraphic evolution of such systems from an outcrop perspective. A comprehensive facies characterization combined with application of sequence stratigraphic concepts has led to definition of the following physical surfaces and stratal units in ascending order. (i) A polygenetic, regionally extensive erosional surface resulting from the superposition of the wave ravinement surface onto the previous subaerial sequence boundary (SB/wRS). (ii) A nearshore, sand-prone lithofacies succession comprising a condensed basal shellbed deepening upwards through lower-shoreface bioturbated silty sandstones, into inner shelf sandy mudstones. (iii) Two steep, U-shaped erosional features (turbidite shelf-entrenchment surfaces), interpreted as shelf channels, deeply incised into the subjacent nearshore sediments and marking an abrupt deepening of facies. (iv) A thick, fining-upward sedimentary succession laid down within the confines of the channels by high- and low-density turbidity currents and including both bed-load (traction) and suspended-load deposits; the overall fining- and thinning-upward character exhibited by the infill of these channels is thought to reflect decreasing flow energies and is consistent with the gradual cut-off of clastic influx to their upper reaches in response to progressive detachment from an adjacent coastal source during relative rise in sea level. Based on detailed analysis of facies and a sequence stratigraphic interpretation of outcrop data, this study contributes to extend the existing sequence stratigraphic schemes, further attesting that shelf-sediment bypass and deep-water sedimentation can take place at sea levels other than lowstand.

A Hybrid Monte Carlo Method Based Artificial Neural Networks Approach for Rock Boundaries Identification: A Case Study from the KTB Bore Hole

Identification of rock boundaries and structural features from well log response is a fundamental problem in geological field studies. However, in a complex geologic situation, such as in the presence of crystalline rocks where metamorphisms lead to facies changes, it is not easy to discern accurate information from well log data using conventional artificial neural network (ANN) methods. Moreover inferences drawn by such methods are also found to be ambiguous because of the strong overlapping of well log signals, which are generally tainted with deceptive noise. Here, we have developed an alternative ANN approach based on Bayesian statistics using the concept of Hybrid Monte Carlo (HMC)/Markov Chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) inversion scheme for modeling the German Continental Deep Drilling Program (KTB) well log data. MCMC algorithm draws an independent and identically distributed (i.i.d) sample by Markov Chain simulation technique from posterior probability distribution using the principle of statistical mechanics in Hamiltonian dynamics. In this algorithm, each trajectory is updated by approximating the Hamiltonian differential equations through a leapfrog discrimination scheme. We examined the stability and efficiency of the HMC-based approach on “noisy” data assorted with different levels of colored noise. We also perform uncertainty analysis by estimating standard deviation (STD) error map of a posteriori covariance matrix at the network output of three types of lithofacies over the entire length of the litho section of KTB. Our analyses demonstrate that the HMC-based approach renders robust means for classification of complex lithofacies successions from the KTB borehole noisy signals, and hence may provide a useful guide for understanding the crustal inhomogeneity and structural discontinuity in many other tectonically critical and complex regions.

Outcrop Expression of a Continental-Margin-Scale Shelf-Edge Delta from the Cretaceous Magallanes Basin, Chile

Abstract Shelf-edge deltas are the primary agents of sediment delivery to deeper-water slope and basin-plain depositional environments, and they represent significant targets for hydrocarbon exploration. Subsurface shelf-edge deltas from passive margins have been extensively studied with seismic-reflection data, and only recently have outcrop analogs been documented (e.g., smaller-scale shelf-and-slope systems in the Eocene Central Basin, Spitsbergen, and the Cretaceous Western Interior Seaway, North America). This study characterizes stratigraphic architecture and interprets depositional processes of outcropping deep-water upper-slope and deltaic strata of the Tres Pasos and Dorotea formations of the Late Cretaceous Magallanes foreland basin, southern Chile. The Dorotea delta system at Cerro Escondido is the topset element of an unstable, continental-margin-scale clinoform. Topset-to-basin-floor relief was on the order of two kilometers as a result of inherited tectonic relief from a precursor extensional-basin phase combined with the effects of thrust loading and foreland flexure. The superbly exposed Cerro Escondido outcrop exhibits a depositional-strike perspective of ~ 300 m of shelf-edge delta deposits, including two generally upward-coarsening lithofacies successions (each succession up to ~ 200 m of measured thickness). Lithofacies successions are composed of upward-shoaling lithofacies associations, including prodelta turbidites overlain by thick wave-reworked delta-front, or shoreface, sandstones and subaqueous delta-plain distributary-channel and interdistributary deposits. Successions at Cerro Escondido are distinctively different from upward-shoaling deposits documented in other outcrop-based studies: they include thicker, coarser-grained delta-plain and delta-front strata and relatively coarse-grained prodelta turbidites in pockets of shelf-edge accommodation created as a result of mass wasting. Conditions inherent to the relatively unstable, continental-margin-scale, linked Dorotea shelf and Tres Pasos slope facilitated the development of successions at Cerro Escondido. Therefore, outcrops at Cerro Escondido provide unique insights into shelf-edge architecture and development, which can be applied to models of continental-margin evolution.

Late Cretaceous–Early Eocene tectonic development of the Tethyan suture zone in the Erzincan area, Eastern Pontides, Turkey

AbstractSix individual tectonostratigraphic units are identified within the İzmir–Ankara–Erzincan Suture Zone in the critical Erzincan area of the Eastern Pontides. The Ayıkayası Formation of Campanian–Maastrichtian age is composed of bedded pelagic limestones intercalated with polymict, massive conglomerates. The Ayıkayası Formation conformably overlies the Tauride passive margin sequence in the Munzur Mountains to the south and is interpreted as an underfilled foredeep basin. The Refahiye Complex, of possible Late Cretaceous age, is a partial ophiolite composed of ~75% (by volume) serpentinized peridotite (mainly harzburgite), ~20% diabase and minor amounts of gabbro and plagiogranite. The complex is interpreted as oceanic lithosphere that formed by spreading above a subduction zone. Unusual screens of metamorphic rocks (e.g. marble and schist) locally occur between sheeted diabase dykes. The Upper Cretaceous Karayaprak Mélange exhibits two lithological associations: (1) the basalt + radiolarite + serpentinite association, including depleted arc-type basalts; (2) the massive neritic limestone + lava + volcaniclastic association that includes fractionated, intermediate-composition lavas, and is interpreted as accreted Neotethyan seamount(s). The several-kilometre-thick Karadağ Formation, of Campanian–Maastrichtian age, is composed of greenschist-facies volcanogenic rocks of mainly basaltic to andesitic composition, and is interpreted as an emplaced Upper Cretaceous volcanic arc. The Campanian–Early Eocene Sütpınar Formation (~1500 m thick) is a coarsening-upward succession of turbiditic calcarenite, sandstone, laminated mudrock, volcaniclastic sedimentary rocks that includes rare andesitic lava, and is interpreted as a regressive forearc basin. The Late Paleocene–Eocene Sipikör Formation is a laterally varied succession of shallow-marine carbonate and siliciclastic lithofacies that overlies deformed Upper Cretaceous units with an angular unconformity. Structural study indicates that the assembled accretionary prism, supra-subduction zone-type oceanic lithosphere and volcanic arc units were emplaced northwards onto the Eurasian margin and also southwards onto the Tauride (Gondwana-related) margin during Campanian–Maastrichtian time. Further, mainly southward thrusting took place during the Eocene in this area, related to final closure of Tethys. Our preferred tectonic model involves northward subduction, supra-subduction zone ophiolite genesis and arc magmatism near the northerly, Eurasian margin of the Mesozoic Tethys.

Geology Of the Carnegie Museum Dinosaur Quarry Site Of Diplodocus carnegii, Sheep Creek, Wyoming

Abstract The holotype of Diplodocus carnegii Hatcher, 1901, consists of a partial skeleton (CM 84) that was recovered, along with a second partial skeleton of the same species (CM 94), from the upper 10 m of the Talking Rock facies of the Brushy Basin Member of the Morrison Formation exposed along Bone Quarry Draw, a tributary of Sheep Creek in Albany County, Wyoming. A composite measured section of the stratigraphic interval exposed adjacent to the quarry indicates that the Brushy Basin Member in this area is a stacked succession of lithofacies consisting of hackly, greenish gray, calcareous mudstone and greenish brown, dense, fine-grained limestone. The more erosion resistant limestone layers can be traced over many hundreds of meters. Thus, these strata do not appear to represent a highly localized deposit such as a stream channel, oxbow lake, or backwater pond. The Sheep Creek succession is interpreted as representing a clastic-dominated lake where high turbidity and sediment influx produced depositio...

Neural network modelling and classification of lithofacies using well log data: a case study from KTB borehole site

SUMMARY A novel approach based on the concept of super self-adapting back propagation (SSABP) neural network has been developed for classifying lithofacies boundaries from well log data. The SSABP learning paradigm has been applied to constrain the lithofacies boundaries by parameterzing three sets of well log data, that is, density, neutron porosity and gamma ray obtained from the German Continental Deep Drilling Project (KTB). A multilayer perceptron (MLP) neural networks model was generated in a supervised feed-forward mode for training the published core sample data. A total of 351 pairs of input and output examples were used for self-adaptive network learning and weight and bias values were appropriately updated during each epoch according to the gradient-descent momentum scheme. The actual data analysis suggests that the SSABP network is able to emulate the pattern of all three sets of KTB data and identify lithofacies boundaries correctly. The comparisons of the maximum likelihood geological sections with the available geological information and the existing geophysical findings over the KTB area suggest that, in addition to the known main lithofacies boundaries units, namely paragneisses, metabasites and heterogeneous series containing partly calc-silicate bearing paragneisses-metabasites and alternations of former volcano-sedimentary sequences, the SSABP neural network technique resolves more detailed finer structures embedded in bigger units at certain depths over the KTB region which seems to be of some geological significance. The efficacy of the method and stability of results was also tested in presence of different levels of coloured noise. The test results suggest that the designed network topology is considerably unwavering for up to 20 per cent correlated noise; however, adding more noise (∼50 per cent or more) degrades the results. Our analyses demonstrate that the SSABP based approach renders a robust means for the classification of complex lithofacies successions from the KTB borehole log data and thus may provide useful guide/information for understanding the crustal inhomogeneity and structural discontinuity in many other regions.

Fluvial system response to Middle and Upper Pleistocene climate change in the Meurthe and Moselle valleys (Eastern Paris Basin and Rhenish Massif)

Research in the Meurthe and Moselle valleys downstream from the Vosges Massif has resulted in the definition of the terrace system, and in the recognition of the climatic influence on its formation. Eight alluvial terraces were recognized at less than 100 m relative height. An absolute chronology was established for the youngest alluvial terraces, based on infrared optically stimulated luminescence and radiocarbon dating. This provides evidence that each terrace corresponds to a single glacial–interglacial cycle. This result is confirmed by the study of numerous sections, which present a constant succession of lithofacies in each valley part. Four alluvial sequences were also defined along the Meurthe and Moselle valleys, reflecting Middle and Late Pleistocene climate change: their upper basin, developed in the Vosges Massif, was actually covered by glaciers during the Pleistocene cold periods. The differences between these four alluvial sequences are attributed to the unequal expansion of ice in the upper basins of the Meurthe and Moselle rivers, and their tributaries. In spite of these differences, the sequences show important similarities: main aggradation events correlate with cold periods (Pleniglacial and Lateglacial), whereas erosional phases occurred at the warm-to-cold transitions, and secondarily at the Pleniglacial–Lateglacial transitions. This evolution is comparable with those already described in other northwestern European valleys, especially since the Upper Saalian.

Sedimentology of rocky shorelines: 4. Coarse gravel lithofacies, molluscan biofacies, and the stratigraphic and eustatic records in the type area of the Pleistocene Hulopoe Gravel, Lanai, Hawaii

During the Pleistocene, the south flank of Lanai was the site of repeated erosion and deposition as a consequence of glacio-eustasy superimposed on tectono-isostasy. Throughout this time, terrigenous and bioclastic gravel was generated along mainly rocky shorelines. Gravelly sediment was deposited in topographically low areas of the shoreface and inner shelf that later were uplifted isostatically. The sedimentary lithofacies and biofacies in these deposits are distinctive, but they represent a deposystem and suite of environments that hitherto have not been studied systematically. These unrecognised circumstances have fuelled controversies about the nature and significance of the Hulopoe Gravel, most notably the claim that it represents a mega-tsunami deposit. The Hulopoe Gravel in its type area displays a lithofacies succession that encompasses a complete disconformity-bounded transgressive–regressive cycle on a sand-poor rocky shoreline. This succession incorporates not only a distinctive vertical assemblage of rocky shoreline litho- and biofacies, but also internal disconformities that record episodes of erosion and non-deposition during shoreline migration. Repetition of the lithofacies succession imparts overall stratigraphic order to the Hulopoe Gravel. Four unconformity-bounded transgressive–regressive cycles correspond to eustatic highstands of Oxygen Isotope Stages 5 and 7, superimposed on continuing tectono-isostatic uplift driven by growth of the island of Hawaii. This study of the Hulopoe Gravel demonstrates that the sedimentary record of mixed volcaniclastic-carbonate depositional systems developed on rocky shorelines of tropical and subtropical oceanic island coasts can be preserved. This record may include depositional products of both transgressive and regressive shorelines. Although tsunami and giant submarine landslides are known to occur in the Hawaiian Islands, deposits and features that result from tsunami inundation above the shoreline, such as might be expected from landslide-related mega-tsunami, have not been recognised in the type area of the Hulopoe Gravel. Rocky palaeoshoreline records on oceanic volcanic islands may yield oceanographic and climatic clues that complement data obtained from other palaeoshoreline types.

Facies architecture and sequence-stratigraphic features of the Tumbiana Formation in the Pilbara Craton, northwestern Australia: Implications for depositional environments of oxygenic stromatolites during the Late Archean

The Tumbiana Formation (ca. 2.7 Ga) is a succession developed in response to Late Archean crustal extension in the Pilbara Craton, northwestern Australia. The formation is characterized by intercalations of stromatolitic carbonates and provides a perspective of the evolution of photosynthetic organisms, which are interpreted to have been responsible for the oxygenation of earth surface environments in early Earth. Here we investigated the depositional setting of the stromatolitic carbonates for the better understand of the environments, which may have controlled the massive development of oxygenic photosynthesis. We studied lithofacies and sequence-stratigraphic features of the Tumbiana Formation in the Redmont area, a southern margin of the northern Pilbara Craton, on the basis of three-dimensional analyses of onshore outcrops. The Tumbiana Formation, as much as 170 m thick, unconformably overlies the Early to Middle Archean basement rocks and is unconformably overlain by the Maddina Formation that consists of mafic tuffaceous sediments and basalt lavas. The lower part of the Tumbiana Formation is characterized by planar- and trough cross-stratified conglomerates, which are interpreted to be an alluvial-fan deposit shed from the northern hinterlands and developed mainly in local depressions of the basement rocks during late lowstand and early transgressive stages. The base of the middle part is defined by a transgressive surface of erosion overlain by conglomerates and/or breccias that pass upward to mafic tuffaceous mudstones and sandstones intercalated with accretionary lapillis, breccias, and basalt pillow lavas. Mudstones are commonly laminated and sandstones contain current- and wave ripple-lamination, parallel lamination, hummocky cross-stratification, and trough cross-stratification. In general, the middle part exhibits an overall fining- and coarsening-upward pattern and is interpreted to indicate transgressive and regressive shelf-to-coastal lithofacies successions. In particular, the uppermost horizon of the middle part is characterized by sandstone beds with herringbone structures and desiccation cracks, and is interpreted to indicate an intertidal deposit developed during late highstand and/or following falling stages. The middle part of the formation, in general, thickens to the northern proximal area and eventually flattened out the topographic irregularity of the basement rocks. The upper part is characterized by stromatolitic carbonates, associated with minor mudstones and wave- and current-rippled sandstones, and does not exhibit distinct lateral variation in thickness and vertical lithofacies organization. The base of the upper part is characterized by a transgressive lag deposit. The ensuing transgression over the intertidal deposits of the uppermost middle part is interpreted to have developed a new accommodation space for the vertical stacking of stromatolites with different external shapes from elongated small-domal- and columnar-types associated with desiccation cracks to stratiform- and large domal-types. These changes may have responded to the increase in paleowater depth possibly from intertidal to subtidal environments. In conclusion, stromatolites in the upper Tumbiana Formation in the Redmont area are interpreted to have developed in coastal and shallow marine environments in response to the rise in relative sea level rather than in ephemeral saline lakes as proposed by previous studies. However, the outcome of the present research does not necessarily deny the previously proposed interpretation but suggests spatial variations in depositional environments of the Tumbiana Formation from the north to south.

From Cycles to Sequences: Sequence Stratigraphy and Relative Sea Level Change for the Late Cambrian of the North China Platform

Abstract In the Late Cambrian, the North China Platform was a typical carbonate ramp platform. The Upper Cambrian of the northern part of the North China Platform is famous for the development of bioherm limestones and storm calcirudites and can be divided from bottom to top into the Gushan, Changshan and Fengshan formations. In this set of strata, the deep-ramp mudstone and marls and the shallow-ramp packstones and grainstones constitute many carbonate meter-scale cycles of subtidal type. More tidal-flat dolomites are developed in the Upper Cambrian of the southern margin of the North China platform, in which limestone and dolomite beds also constitute many carbonate meter-scale cycles of the peritidal type. These cycles are marked by a variety of litho-facies successions. There are regularly vertical stacking patterns of meter-scale cycles in long-term third-order sequences, which is the key to discerning such sequences. Third-order sequence is marked by a particular sedimentary-facies succession that is the result of the environment-changing process of deepening and shoaling, which is genetically related to third-order sea level changes. Furthermore, four third-order sequences can be grouped in the Upper Cambrian of the North China Platform. The main features of these four third-order sequences in the northern part of the platform can be summarized as follows: firstly, sequence-boundaries are characterized by drowning unconformities; secondly, the sedimentary-facies succession is generally constituted by one from deep-ramp facies to shallow-ramp facies; thirdly, a succession of “CS (?)+HST” (i.e., “condensed section and high-stand system”) forms these four third-order sequences. The chief features for the third-order sequences in the southern part of the North China Platform comprises: more dolomites are developed in the HSTs of third-order sequences and also developed more carbonate meter-scale cycles of peritidal types; the sedimentary-facies succession of the third-order sequences is marked by “shallow ramp-tidal flat”; the sequence boundaries are characterized by exposure punctuated surfaces. According to the changes for the third-order sequences from the north to the south, a regular sequence-strati graphic framework can be established. From cycles to sequences, the study of sequence stratigraphy from litho-facies successions to sedimentary-facies successions exposes that as follows: meter-scale cycles that are used as the basic working unit actually are litho-facies successions formed by the mechanism of a punctuated aggradational cycle, and third-order sequences that are constituted by regularly vertical stacking patterns of meter-scale cycles are marked by sedimentary-facies successions. On the basis of the changing curve of water depth at each section, the curve of the relative third-order sea level changes in the late Cambrian of the North China Platform can be integrated qualitatively from changing curve of water depth. The correlation of Late Cambrian long-term sea level changes between North China and North America demonstrates that there are not only similarities but also differences, reflecting control of long-term sea level changes both by global eustacy and by regional factors.

Lithofacies succession of maar crater deposits in the Eifel area (Germany)

ABSTRACT Maar craters often contain exceptionally preserved fossils and maar sediments may reflect detailed environmental changes. Volcanosedimentary processes in a Middle Eocene maar crater lake are illustrated by the deposits of Eckfeld Maar in the Tertiary Hocheifel Volcanic Field (Rhenish Massif, Germany). The maar origin of the basin is evident from a circular negative gravity anomaly which indicates a low‐density funnel‐shaped basin filling. From the facies analysis of an Eocene (Eckfeld) and a Pleistocene (Döttingen) maar we develop a lithozone classification for the interpretation of maar sediments: syn‐/post‐eruptive breccias are followed by a fining‐upwards sequence of lacustrine mud with coarse layers and final swamp deposits. From the facies analysis and regional geological data we reconstruct the pre‐ to post‐eruptive history of a maar crater prior to post‐Eocene uplift. These observations can be used for the interpretation of Tertiary and Quaternary maar craters that are ideal fossil and sediment traps.

Permian–Triassic boundary interval in the Abadeh section of Iran with implications for mass extinction: Part 1 – Sedimentology

The uppermost Permian strata of the Abadeh section in Iran consist of 56 m of skeletal limestone (Abadehian), that grades upward into 18 m of grey, bioturbated lime mudstone (Djulfian), which in turn grades upward to 18 m of red, nodular wackestone (Dorashamian) containing an abundant pelagic fauna. The overlying lowermost Triassic includes two enigmatic layers at its base. Immediately above the boundary is a 1-m-thick layer of inorganically precipitated synsedimentary carbonate cement. The cement is composed of 10–20-cm-long crystals oriented either perpendicular to the bedding or as dome-shaped features resembling botryoids. About 0.5 m of wackestone overlies the cement layer. The second layer is a 1.5-m-thick grainstone overlying the cement horizon and consists of recrystallised spherical grains (ooids or peloids). The remainder of unit ‘A’ is composed of 100+ m of grey, bioturbated to nodular lime mudstone. The lithofacies succession of the uppermost Permian is interpreted to represent deposition under increasing water depth, related to rising of relative sea level, which led to drowning of the carbonate platform to below storm wave base. Sedimentologic characteristics, lithology, wide distribution, and slow sedimentation rates indicate that strata immediately below the Permian–Triassic (P–T) boundary (Dorashamian interval) were deposited in deep, oxygenated waters. The enigmatic lowermost Triassic synsedimentary carbonate cement and grainstone layers are interpreted to have been deposited in shallow waters, indicating a rapid and major drop in relative sea level at the end of Permian time in this area, followed by a relative sea-level rise during the earliest Triassic. Precipitation of synsedimentary cement immediately above the P–T boundary in Iran and elsewhere (South China) suggests a global change in ocean chemistry. One possible explanation is that dissolved calcium and bicarbonate concentrations in seawater increased sufficiently to promote spontaneous carbonate precipitation, a rare event in the Phanerozoic but common during Precambrian time. Alternatively, a massive heating event could have resulted in CO 2 degassing and decreases in oceanic carbonate solubility, both leading to inorganic, synsedimentary carbonate precipitation. Inorganic precipitation of synsedimentary carbonate cement may indicate that biochemical production of carbonate was halted due to the P–T boundary events. Our study indicates that shallow and moderately deep waters during the latest Permian were well oxygenated in the open ocean setting of the central Tethys Sea in Iran. Therefore, P–T mass extinction scenarios that invoke upon widespread marine anoxia should be viewed with caution.