Memory Bias Research Articles

Exploring the association between neuroticism and negativity bias in evaluative counterconditioning

People high on neuroticism express a negativity bias in attention, memory, and interpretation, giving primacy to negative rather than positive information. Investigating additional forms of negativity bias in neuroticism could provide further insights into the situations where people who score high on neuroticism tend to remain anchored on negative aspects. We examined whether neuroticism is related to negativity bias in evaluative learning. Instruction-based and experience-based counterconditioning are two evaluative learning procedures in which a conditioned stimulus (CS) is related to a positive or a negative unconditioned stimulus (US) in Phase 1 and with a US of the opposite valence in Phase 2. Using these procedures, we obtained partial support for a negativity bias in counterconditioning among people who scored high on neuroticism. Specifically, participants scoring high on negative emotionality altered the CSs ratings more easily from positive to negative than from negative to positive, a pattern observed in instruction-based counterconditioning (Experiment 1) but not in experience-based counterconditioning (Experiment 2). In line with previous findings, we could conclude that people who score high on neuroticism tend to give primacy to emotionally negative information at the expense of positive information, particularly in ambiguous (learning) contexts.

Emotional memory bias in adolescents with chronic pain: examining the relationship with neural, stress, and psychological factors.

Memory biases for pain-related information may contribute to the development and maintenance of chronic pain; however, evidence for when (and for whom) these biases occur is mixed. Therefore, we examined neural, stress, and psychological factors that could influence memory bias, focusing on memories that motivate disabling behaviors: pain perception, conditioned responses to threat-and-safety cues, and responses to aversive nonnoxious stimuli. Two studies were conducted with adolescents with and without chronic pain. Data from 58 participants were included in study 1 (chronic pain n = 34, pain free n = 24, mean age = 16 years), and 39 participants were included in study 2 (chronic pain n = 26, pain free n = 13, mean age = 16 years). Both studies used a threat-safety learning paradigm with memory recall (≈1 month later). Participants completed structural and functional (resting-state) magnetic resonance imaging, salivary cortisol measurements, and self-report measures. Adolescents with pain and pain-free peers consistently recalled being more afraid of safety cues (CS-) and, during heightened stress at encoding (higher cortisol levels), also reported being more afraid of threat cues (CS+). However, no memory bias was present for the emotional response to an aversive stimulus (US; loud scream) or for the recall of pain intensity. Functional connectivity of the amygdala and hippocampus with memory circuits related to the degree of memory bias, but the specific connections varied between the studies, and we observed no relationship between memory bias and brain morphology. Our findings highlight the value of considering the interaction between implicit and explicit memory systems, contributing to a more comprehensive understanding of emotional memory biases in the context of chronic pain.

The effects of shared, depression-specific, and anxiety-specific internalizing symptoms on negative and neutral episodic memories following post-learning sleep.

Emotional memory bias is a common characteristic of internalizing symptomatology and is enhanced during sleep. The current study employs bifactor S-1 modeling to disentangle depression-specific anhedonia, anxiety-specific anxious arousal, and the common internalizing factor, general distress, and test whether these internalizing symptoms interact with sleep to influence memory for emotional and neutral information. Healthy adults (N = 281) encoded scenes featuring either negative objects (e.g., a vicious looking snake) or neutral objects (e.g., a chipmunk) placed on neutral backgrounds (e.g., an outdoor scene). After a 12-hour period of daytime wakefulness (n = 140) or nocturnal sleep (n = 141), participants judged whether objects and backgrounds were the same, similar, or new compared with what they viewed during encoding. Participants also completed the mini version of the Mood and Anxiety Symptom Questionnaire. Higher anxious arousal predicted worse memory across all stimuli features, but only after a day spent being awake-not following a night of sleep. No significant effects were found for general distress and anhedonia in either the sleep or wake condition. In this study, internalizing symptoms were not associated with enhanced emotional memory. Instead, memory performance specifically in individuals with higher anxious arousal was impaired overall, regardless of emotional valence, but this was only the case when the retention interval spanned wakefulness (i.e., not when it spanned sleep). This suggests that sleep may confer a protective effect on general memory impairments associated with anxiety.

Childhood trauma and suicide risk: Investigating the role of adult attachment

BackgroundSuicide is a leading cause of death globally and a serious public health concern. Childhood trauma has been found to be associated with adult suicide vulnerability. Recent research has turned attention to investigating the role of attachment in the context of the childhood trauma-adult suicide relationship. The current study investigated for the first time whether attachment influences and moderates the childhood trauma-suicidality relationship, using a daily diary design, in the general population. Methods481 participants completed questionnaires assessing experiences of childhood trauma, attachment patterns, and history of suicidality. 243 participants continued to a daily diary phase where measures of daily stress, defeat and entrapment were completed for 7 consecutive days. ResultsHigher levels of childhood trauma were associated with a history of suicide ideation and attempt and also higher levels of daily defeat, entrapment and stress during the 7 day study. Similarly, higher levels of attachment anxiety and avoidance were associated with a history of suicide ideation and attempt together with higher levels of daily defeat, entrapment and stress. However, the effects of childhood trauma on suicide history and on daily suicide vulnerability factors were not moderated by attachment anxiety or avoidance. LimitationsThe measure of childhood trauma was a retrospective self-report tool that may be influenced by memory biases. ConclusionsChildhood trauma and insecure attachment are implicated in adult suicide risk. Interventions aimed at mitigating the negative effects of childhood trauma and insecure attachment should also incorporate components that target modifiable risk factors such as defeat, entrapment and stress.

A study of somatization symptoms and low-frequency amplitude fluctuations of emotional memory in adolescent depression

Studies have revealed that somatization symptoms are associated with emotional memory in adolescents with depressive disorders. This study investigated somatization symptoms and emotional memory among adolescents with depressive disorders using low-frequency amplitude fluctuations (ALFF). Participants were categorized into the somatization symptoms (FSS) group, non-FSS group and healthy control group (HC). The correctness of negative picture re-recognition was higher in the FFS and HC group than in the non-FSS group. The right superior occipital gyrus and right inferior temporal gyrus were significantly larger in the FSS group than those in the non-FSS and HC groups. Additionally, the ALFF in the superior occipital and inferior temporal gyrus were positively correlated with CSI score. Furthermore, the ALFF values in the temporal region positively correlated with correct negative image re-recognition. The negative image re-recognition rate was positively correlated with the ALFF in the left and right middle occipital gyri. These findings indicated that somatization symptoms in adolescent depression are associated with the superior occipital gyrus and inferior temporal gyrus. Notably, somatization symptoms play a role in memory bias within depressive disorders, with middle occipital and inferior temporal gyri potentially serving as significant brain regions.

Prospective person memory and own-race bias of missing person appeals

Prospective person memory and own-race bias of missing person appeals

Digital assessment of cognitive-affective biases related to mental health.

With an increasing societal need for digital therapy solutions for poor mental health, we face a corresponding rise in demand for scientifically validated digital contents. In this study we aimed to lay a sound scientific foundation for the development of brain-based digital therapeutics to assess and monitor cognitive effects of social and emotional bias across diverse populations and age-ranges. First, we developed three computerized cognitive tasks using animated graphics: 1) an emotional flanker task designed to test attentional bias, 2) an emotional go-no-go task to measure bias in memory and executive function, and 3) an emotional social evaluation task to measure sensitivity to social judgments. Then, we confirmed the generalizability of our results in a wide range of samples (children (N = 50), young adults (N = 172), older adults (N = 39), online young adults (N=93), and depression patients (N = 41)) using touchscreen and online computer-based tasks, and devised a spontaneous thought generation task that was strongly associated with, and therefore could potentially serve as an alternative to, self-report scales. Using PCA, we extracted five components that represented different aspects of cognitive-affective function (emotional bias, emotional sensitivity, general accuracy, and general/social attention). Next, a gamified version of the above tasks was developed to test the feasibility of digital cognitive training over a 2-week period. A pilot training study utilizing this application showed decreases in emotional bias in the training group (that were not observed in the control group), which was correlated with a reduction in anxiety symptoms. Using a 2-channel wearable EEG system, we found that frontal alpha and gamma power were associated with both emotional bias and its reduction across the 2-week training period.

Representation of Indonesian women politicians (Media analysis to G30S PKI incident coverage from 1965 to 2015)

Background: The G30S/PKI incident that occurred in 1965 is known for the murder of six generals by the PKI (Indonesian Communist Party). The “New Order” (Orba) regime under Suharto carried out the extermination of hundreds of PKI members and supporters, imprisoning thousands of people, including members of Gerwani and those who were neither PKI nor Gerwani members, due to biases and assumptions. Since the Reformation era of 1998, many historical facts about G30S/PKI have been questioned by the public. Over the past 50 years, issues related to G30S/PKI have fluctuated in media coverage. Today, the representation of female politicians cannot be separated from the negative memories of the tragedy and the militant image of Gerwani. Methods: The research questions are: How consistent is media reporting when covering the same issue in different political contexts? How does the media, as a means of value socialization, influence the collective memory of society regarding women's activities in politics?. The research is conducted using content analysis of a national newspaper from 1965 to 2015 to examine the visibility of Gerwani-related issues over time. Discourse analysis is also used to explore the role and position of Gerwani. Findings: The results indicate that the media tends to side with the dominant group, namely the rulers, and does not voice the interests of weaker groups. Women's interests are framed and represented through the perspective of men. Conclusion: In this context, female politicians receive more appreciation from society when they do not emphasize militant methods in advocating their ideas but instead focus on a caring approach. Novelty/Originality of this Study: The originality of this study lies in its focus on the evolving portrayal of Gerwani over different political eras and its examination of the media's role in shaping collective memory and gender biases. It uniquely integrates the political economy of communication, collective memory, and feminist perspectives to explore how media representation impacts societal views on women in politics.

The "good is up" metaphoric effects on recognition: True for source guessing but false for item memory.

The "good is up" metaphor, which links valence and verticality was found to influence affective judgement and to direct attention, but its effects on memory remain unclear with contradictory research findings. To provide a more accurate assessment of memory components involved in recognition, such as item memory and source-guessing biases, a standard source monitoring paradigm was applied in this research. A series of three experiments provided a conceptual replication and extension of Experiment 2 by Crawford et al., (2014) and yielded a consistent result pattern suggesting that the "good is up" metaphor biases participants' guessing of source location. That is, when source memory failed, participants were more inclined to guess the "up" location versus "down" location for positive items (and vice versa for negative items). It did, however, not affect source memory or item memory for valenced stimuli learned from metaphor-congruent versus incongruent locations (i.e., no metaphor-(in)congruent effects in memory). We suggest that the "good is up" metaphor may affect cognitive processes in a more subtle way than originally suggested.

Memory representations are flexibly adapted to orthographic systems: A comparison of English and Hebrew

Across languages, speech unfolds in the same temporal order, constrained by the forward flow of time. But the way phonology is spatially mapped onto orthography is language-specific, ranging from left-to-right, right-to-left, and top-to-bottom, among others. While the direction of writing systems influences how known words are visually processed, it is unclear whether it influences learning and memory for novel orthographic regularities. The present study tested English and Hebrew speakers on an orthographic word-referent mapping task in their native orthographies (written left-to-right and right-to-left, respectively), where the onsets and offsets of words were equally informative cues to word identity. While all individuals learned orthographic word-referent mappings significantly above chance, the parts of the word that were most strongly represented varied. English monolinguals false alarmed most to competing foils that began with the same bigram as the target, representing word onsets most strongly. However, Hebrew bilinguals trained on their native orthography showed no difference between false alarm rates to onset and offset competitors, representing the beginning and ends of words equally strongly. Importantly, Hebrew bilinguals tested on English words displayed a more English-like false alarm pattern (although not a full switch), suggesting that memory biases adapt to the opposite directionality of encountered text while retaining traces of native language biases. These findings demonstrate that experience with different writing systems influences how individuals represent novel orthographic words, starting in the earliest stages of learning.

Long-term memory for faces in dysmorphic concern and self-reported body dysmorphic disorder

Dysmorphic concerns are a core symptom of body dysmorphic disorder (BDD), a mental disorder characterized by a preoccupation with perceived appearance-related flaws. Different cognitive and perceptual biases are associated with dysmorphic concern or BDD, including object-related short-term memory deficits and superior short-term memory performance for facial features. A face-related long-term memory bias might explain the feature of perceiving flaws and why individuals with BDD experience adverse outcomes of cosmetic surgery. The present study aimed at investigating long-term memory (LTM) performance for different facial stimuli. 62 participants completed an online experiment (30 with low and 32 with high dysmorphic concern; 39 without and 23 with self-reported BDD). The experiment consisted of two consecutive old/new recognition tasks, testing memory performance of whole faces and facial features. LTM performance was higher for whole faces than for facial features across groups. Neither significant differences between the low and high dysmorphic concern groups nor an interaction of group x stimulus type were found. Post hoc exploratory analyses revealed lower long-term memory performance in individuals with versus without self-reported BDD. The results indicate that memory performance might be only affected in BDD rather than non-clinical or non–BDD-specific dysmorphic concerns.

Loneliness and socioemotional memory

AbstractDo chronically high‐lonely individuals exhibit specific memory biases when recalling past social episodes? We explored negative memory biases, focusing on the recall of unfavourable social experiences and social memory biases, emphasizing the recall of social experiences irrespective of emotional valence. We conducted a dictionary‐based semantic analysis of autobiographical episodes obtained from 4095 participants via four datasets. Participants recalled a positive, negative or emotionally neutral episode from their recent past. High‐lonely individuals predominantly exhibited a decline in recalling positive social episodes, providing partial support for negative memory biases. However, both high‐ and low‐lonely individuals were similarly inclined to recall negative social episodes. These results suggest that the primary issue among high‐lonely individuals is the limited recall of positive social experiences rather than the general negativity in memory biases or the hypersensitivity to general social memories.

Analysis of the reliability of KEOPS version 2 for the measurement of coronal and sagittal parameters in spinal deformity.

The purpose of the study is to evaluate the updated version of this software in patients with various spinal deformity. Sixty patients were included in this study and were divided into three categories: 20 patients with AIS, 20 patients with ASD, and 20 patients having undergone corrective surgery for spinal deformity. The measurements were performed by two senior and two junior orthopedic surgery residents, and were done at two points in time separated by a 3-week interval with the cases being randomized every time to reduce the risk of memory bias. Measured parameters included coronal, sagittal, global alignment parameters, andpelvic parameters. When assessing the inter- and intra-observer reliability across all the groups of patients, none of the coefficients was smaller than 0.8 with a very high level of agreement. The standard error ranged from 0.7° to 1.5° demonstrating a high level of accuracy. Fairly similar results were seen when the groups were divided into the three categories except for the post-operative groups where a strong and not perfect level of agreement was reported. This is the first study to assess the reproducibility of the new version of KEOPS, showing a very high agreement in all measurements. In the post-operative group, although it showed a strong agreement, the lower performance can be explained by the presence of surgical material making it harder to identify the anatomical landmarks accurately. Nevertheless, we can recommend the usage of this software in a clinical setting.

Toward a mechanistic understanding of the role of error monitoring and memory in social anxiety.

Cognitive models state that social anxiety (SA) involves biased cognitive processing that impacts what is learned and remembered within social situations, leading to the maintenance of SA. Neuroscience work links SA to enhanced error monitoring, reflected in error-related neural responses arising from mediofrontal cortex (MFC). Yet, the role of error monitoring in SA remains unclear, as it is unknown whether error monitoring can drive changes in memory, biasing what is learned or remembered about social situations. Motivated by the longer-term goal of identifying mechanisms implicated in SA, in the current study we developed and validated a novel paradigm for probing the role of error-related MFC theta oscillations (associated with error monitoring) and incidental memory biases in SA. Electroencephalography (EEG) datawere collected while participants completed a novel Face-Flanker task, involving presentation of task-unrelated, trial-unique faces behind target/flanker arrows on each trial. A subsequent incidental memory assessment evaluated memory biases for error events. Severity of SA symptoms were associated with greater error-related theta synchrony over MFC, as well as between MFC and sensory cortex. Social anxiety also was positively associated with incidental memory biases for error events. Moreover, greater error-related MFC-sensory theta synchrony during the Face-Flanker predicted subsequent incidental memory biases for error events. Collectively, the results demonstrate the potential of a novel paradigm to elucidate mechanisms underlying relations between error monitoring and SA.

Positive affect modulates memory by regulating the influence of reward prediction errors

How our decisions impact our memories is not well understood. Reward prediction errors (RPEs), the difference between expected and obtained reward, help us learn to make optimal decisions-providing a signal that may influence subsequent memory. To measure this influence and how it might go awry in mood disorders, we recruited a large cohort of human participants to perform a decision-making task in which perceptually memorable stimuli were associated with probabilistic rewards, followed by a recognition test for those stimuli. Computational modeling revealed that positive RPEs enhanced both the accuracy of memory and the temporal efficiency of memory search, beyond the contribution of perceptual information. Critically, positive affect upregulated the beneficial effect of RPEs on memory. These findings demonstrate how affect selectively regulates the impact of RPEs on memory, providing a computational mechanism for biased memory in mood disorders.

Many Mickles Make a Muckle: Evidence That Gender Stereotypes Reemerge Spontaneously Via Cultural Evolution.

We explore whether societal gender stereotypes re-emerge as social information is repeatedly passed from person to person. We examined whether peoples' memories of personality attributes associated with female and male social targets became increasingly consistent with societal gender stereotypes as information was passed down social transmission chains. After passing through the memories of just four generations of participants, our initially gender-balanced micro-societies became rife with traditional gender stereotypes. While we found some evidence of the re-emergence of gender stereotypes in Experiment 1, we found the effects were stronger when targets appeared in a feminine-stereotyped occupational context (Experiment 2), and a masculine-stereotyped occupational context (Experiment 3); conversely, the re-emergence of gender stereotypes was attenuated when targets appeared in a single gender context (Experiment 4). The current findings demonstrate that gender schematic memory bias, if widely shared, might cause gender stereotypes to be maintained through cultural evolution.

The Interrelationships Between Cognitive Biases for Pain: An Experimental Study

Contemporary pain models highlight cognitive-processing biases (ie, attention bias [AB], interpretation bias [IB], and memory bias [MB]) as key processes that contribute to poor pain outcomes. However, existing research has yielded inconsistent findings regarding the presence and impact of these biases on pain outcomes. Recognizing the need to explore these biases simultaneously, contemporary pain models suggest that cognitive biases (CBs) are interrelated, and may have a combined impact upon pain problems. The current study aims to investigate the interrelationships between CBs using the PainAIM paradigm, a novel approach enabling simultaneous evaluation of pain-related AB, IB, and MB using cues signaling actual pain rather than symbolic information. We hypothesized the presence and positive associations of biases for pain-related cues and the predictive value of combined AB and IB for poor pain outcomes. Eighty-four healthy participants completed the PainAIM paradigm, followed by a cold pressor task probing pain experience and pain-related task interference. The results indicated an inverse relationship between AB and IB for ambiguous pain cues. In addition, there was a positive association between participants’ AB for ambiguous pain and their MB for the same cues. Contrary to our hypotheses, CB indices did not predict experimental pain outcomes. These findings provide support for the interrelationships between pain-related CBs. However, future research on the temporal order of CBs and their combined impact on pain outcomes is needed. By overcoming the limitations associated with traditional paradigms, the PainAIM paradigm offers a promising research tool for the further study of combined CBs in the context of pain. PerspectiveThe current study provides insight into the associations between pain-related CBs (AB, IB, and MB) using ecologically valid (ambiguous) pain cues. The results indicated an inverse association between pain-related AB and IB, while a positive association was found between AB and MB. CBs did however not predict experimental pain outcomes.

Mine for life: Charting ownership effects in memory from adolescence to old age.

This study investigates the self-reference effect (SRE) with an ownership memory task across several age groups, providing the first age exploration of implicit ownership memory biases from adolescence to older adulthood (N = 159). Using a well-established ownership task, participants were required to sort images of grocery items as belonging to themselves or to a fictitious unnamed Other. After sorting and a brief distractor task, participants completed a surprise one-step source memory test. Overall, there was a robust SRE, with greater source memory accuracy for self-owned items. The SRE attenuated with age, such that the magnitude of difference between self and other memory diminished into older adulthood. Importantly, these findings were not due to a deterioration of memory for self-owned items, but rather an increase in memory performance for other-owned items. Linear mixed effects analyses showed self-biases in reaction times, such that self-owned items were identified more rapidly compared with other owned items. Again, age interacted with this effect showing that the responses of older adults were slowed, especially for other-owned items. Several theoretical implications were drawn from these findings, but we suggest that older adults may not experience ownership-related biases to the same degree as younger adults. Consequently, SREs through the lens of mere ownership may attenuate with age.

A closer look into the affect dynamics of adolescents with depression and the interactions with their parents: An ecological momentary assessment study.

Adolescents with depression tend to perceive behavior of parents as less positive than adolescents without depression, but conclusions are based on retrospective reports assessed once or over long time intervals, with the risk of memory biases affecting the recall. The current study used ecological momentary assessments to examine the link between adolescent affect and the amount of warmth and criticism expressed by both mothers and fathers in families with adolescents with depression versus adolescents without psychopathology in daily life. It also explored the possible bias by assessing parenting on the momentary, daily (EMA), and retrospective level. The sample consisted of 34 adolescents with depression and 58 parents and 80 healthy controls and 151 parents (adolescents: Mage = 15.8, SD = 1.41; 67.5% girls, parents: Mage = 49.3, SD = 5.73; 54.1% mothers). Participants completed retrospective questionnaires and four surveys a day for 14 consecutive days. Preregistered multilevel models showed that momentary parenting reports of adolescents with depression and healthy controls did not differ. The associations between perceived parenting of both mothers and fathers and adolescent affect did also not differ between the two groups. These results illustrate that adolescents generally benefit from supportive parenting, but substantial differences between individuals were found. In contrast to the momentary data, both adolescents with depression and their parents did report more negative parenting on retrospective questionnaires than healthy controls and their parents indicating that adolescents with depression may have a negativity bias in their retrospective recall. These findings are highly relevant for clinical practice and underscore the need for careful assessments on different time scales and including all family members.

The mirror effect in online survey data: Evidence and implications for marketing theory and strategy

AbstractThis research reveals the presence, in online survey data, of a key pattern documented in psychology lab research: the Mirror Effect. The Mirror Effect occurs when unfamiliar stimuli are unexpectedly recognized as accurately as familiar stimuli, or more accurately. Using a set of familiar and unfamiliar words (as determined by lexical frequency), we first report that we can robustly replicate psychology lab research in an online survey, detecting the Mirror Effect. We then apply the same analytical approach to surveying consumer recognition of everyday brands (supermarkets, banks and car brands). We find that unfamiliar brands can be recognized with the same level of accuracy as familiar brands, and this effect is stronger than age and gender memory biases present in the data. However, we detect a boundary condition for branded apps, which are extremely unfamiliar brands competing in highly fragmented marketplaces, so very few get downloaded or used. For these digital brands, we find a Concordant Effect, as most respondents find it difficult to recognize highly unfamiliar branded apps (i.e., those with fewer than 5000 downloads). The Mirror Effect re‐emerges for highly experienced app users. These results demonstrate the implications of a generalizable empirical pattern from cognitive psychology for branding and advertising theory. The outcomes of this research also translate into practical guidelines for brand performance measurement via online surveys, mitigating recognition memory bias for the development of marketing strategies based on more accurate interpretation of empirical evidence.