Liquefaction Potential Research Articles

Identification the influence of increased pore water pressure and vertical deformation under the influence of the liquefaction

This study examines how increase in pore water pressure weakens the sand foundation, triggers liquefaction and lateral shift. This is related to the interaction of pressure, density, depth, and load through experiments and simulations to increase the foundation design. Numerical analysis using UBC3D-PLM 3D plaxis, while experimental tests are carried out with a 2.2 kW electric motor-powered table. Experiment uses an acrylic ground box 0.5×1×1.5 m3 which is strengthened by steel. The foundation model is in the form of a 2×2 pole group with four pillars and pile caps. The results of the study showed an increase in pore water pressure due to vertical and earthquake loads could trigger liquefaction and vertical deformation. Numerical analysis shows a surge in pressure in 20 seconds, in the case exceeding the 7.0 ratio, shows full liquefaction. The vibrating table experiment (relative density of 10 %) shows RU values close to 1, confirming the potential for liquefaction. Both experiments and simulations indicate rapid initial deformation before stabilization. Pore water pressure jumped to the critical level before stable, indicating the potential for full liquefaction. Non-linear vertical deformation confirms significant soil changes below the dynamic load. This study identifies the limit of the pressure ratio for partial and full liquefaction and soil response to vertical and seismic loads. The combination of numerical and experimental data allows the analysis of vertical deformation of foundation stability. This finding supports the design of earthquake resistant foundations and geotechnical risk assessment, although its application must consider soil conditions and limitations of numeric models, so it is necessary to be further calibration for prediction accuracy

Evaluation of Liquefaction Potential in the Budong-Budong Dam Foundation Plan to Prevent Dam Failure Due to Liquefaction Using a Deterministic Approach

Evaluation of Liquefaction Potential in the Budong-Budong Dam Foundation Plan to Prevent Dam Failure Due to Liquefaction Using a Deterministic Approach

Evaluating Liquefaction Potential and Ground Reinforcement Strategies for Railway Infrastructure in Coastal South Sulawesi

Abstract Liquefaction poses a significant threat to infrastructure in seismically active regions such as Indonesia, particularly in areas with varying soil conditions, like the Makassar-Parepare railway line in South Sulawesi. This study assesses the liquefaction potential at five specific locations along the railway and proposes appropriate ground improvement techniques to mitigate the risks. The method used to analyze liquefaction potential at locations S-1, S-2, S-3, S-4, and S-5 was the Robertson and Wride method. The cyclic stress ratio (CSR) and liquefaction potential index (LPI) were calculated based on CPT data and site-specific seismic parameters. A reinforcement analysis was performed using GeoSlope software, incorporating stabilization techniques such as a 3-meter-high fill, 0.6-meter soil replacement with a geotextile “mattress”, and 6-meter dolken piles. The analysis identified liquefaction potential at depths of 2.2 to 11 meters, with significant risks found at S-2, S-4, and S-5, where LPI values exceeded 15, indicating very high susceptibility to liquefaction. The reinforcement analysis confirmed that the proposed stabilization methods were effective in ensuring long-term embankment stability. The factors of safety (SF) for both static and dynamic conditions exceeded the minimum safety thresholds, with SF static at 4.65 and SF dynamic at 3.645, surpassing the required values of 1.5 and 1.1, respectively.

Influence of partial saturation on liquefaction resistance of soil: a case study at Yogyakarta - Bawen toll road

Abstract Liquefaction occurs in saturated granular soils. It is common practice in liquefaction assessments to assume soil located below the groundwater table to be fully saturated. However, numerous studies have shown many instances of soil below the water table were only partially saturated. A decrease in the saturation, even in small amounts, can significantly increase the liquefaction resistance of soil. This means that ignoring partial saturation in a liquefaction assessment may lead to an underestimation of liquefaction resistance. This research aims to investigate the degree of soil saturation on the field and its effects on liquefaction resistance at the Yogyakarta - Bawen toll road. The influence of partial saturation in a simplified liquefaction potential evaluation was calculated using the KS correction factor proposed by Hossain et al. Additionally, soil saturation on the field was measured using P-wave velocity (VP ) measurements with seismic refraction method. Liquefaction potentials without considering the effect of partial saturation were calculated for three sites at the Yogyakarta - Bawen toll road. The results indicated the presence of potentially liquefiable layers at all investigation sites. Compressional wave velocity tomograms showed soil layers situated below the water table were only partially saturated. Taking this into account, liquefaction potentials were recalculated with partial saturation correction factor applied. The recalculation produced an increased liquefaction resistance and, consequently, an improved liquefaction safety factor above 1.00 for all layers. These results demonstrated the influence of partial saturation on liquefaction resistance and highlighted the importance of partial saturation investigation in liquefaction potential studies.

Axial bearing capacity analysis of single pile foundation based on the increase of excess pore water ratio due to liquefaction

Abstract According to the Indonesian Liquefaction Vulnerability Zone, North Sumatra is categorized as a liquefaction area with various potential levels ranging from low to high. The phenomenon of liquefaction has caused various types of damage to both the aboveground and belowground structures in buildings. Based on these criteria, it is necessary to analyze the liquefaction potential and its effect on the building’s safety. This study aims to evaluate the bearing capacity of bored pile foundations due to the liquefaction effect in the Stadium Construction Project in North Sumatera. Liquefaction potential analysis was performed using nonlinear modeling with the PM4Sand constitutive model. This method considers the excess pore water pressure ratio to determine the liquefaction potential of each layer. The seismic load used was artificial ground motion based on the target earthquake spectrum MCER. An empirical analysis to calculate the axial bearing capacity of a single pile used the Reese and O’Neill 1989 method. It can be concluded that the liquefaction layers were identified at depths 8-12 m, resulting in an 8.31% reduction in the ultimate bearing capacity under liquefied conditions.

Liquefaction Potential Analysis at West Abutment of New Kuning Palu Bridge, Central Sulawesi, Indonesia

Abstract This study presents the liquefaction potential analysis on the West Abutment of the New Kuning Palu Bridge. The New Kuning Palu Bridge was built to replace the Kuning Palu Bridge that collapsed in the 2018 Palu Earthquake. One year after the earthquake, a geotechnical investigation was conducted on the West Abutment plan. Liquefaction analysis was performed using the Idriss & Boulanger empirical method. Based on the study, the liquefaction potential in this area is classified as very high, with an IL of 46, and high severity, with an Ls of 69. Liquefaction can cause lateral displacement of 1.8 m and settlement of 0.25 m.

Liquefaction Hazard Potential and Ground Failure Probability Analysis in the New Access Road at Rendani Airport, Manokwari, West Papua, Indonesia

Abstract According to data from the United States Geological Survey (USGS), the Manokwari region in West Papua Province experienced a 7.6 Mw earthquake in 1944, approximately 5 km from Manokwari City. Potential consequences of such an earthquake is liquefaction, which may occur at the Relocation Plan of the Access Road at Rendani Airport, characterized by shallow groundwater and loose soil. This study aimed to assess the distribution of the Liquefaction Potential Index (LPI) and Ground Failure Probability (PG) using Standard Penetration Test (SPT) data from 18 sampling locations. This was achieved by comparing Peak Ground Acceleration (PGA) values derived from both Deterministic Seismic Hazard Analysis (DSHA) and Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Analysis (PSHA) methods. Determined PGA values of 0.449g for soft soil and 0.499g for medium soil that also can be used as reference in Manokwari area which influenced with Sorong Fault. The LPI value ranged from 0 to 27.06, including a very high potential category at 8 locations, primarily in the northern area, while the PG values greater than 0.9, categorized as very high and almost certain to occur, were identified at 13 locations, also mostly in the northern region. Based on these results, it is essential to consider this liquefaction potential when designing the infrastructure to be built in Manokwari, especially around Rendani Airport.

Dynamic Analysis of MICP-Stabilized Soil and Liquefiable Soil With Varying Salinity Levels

This study investigates the liquefaction potential of soils at Yogyakarta International Airport (YIA), a high-risk seismic zone, and evaluates the efficiency of carbonate precipitation driven by microbial activity (MICP) stabilization under varying salinity situations. The purposes include understanding the dynamic response of natural and MICP-treated soils to seismic loads and assessing the role of salinity in soil behavior. Triaxial cyclic testing was conducted on remolded soil samples at a very loose density (Dr = 10%) to simulate field situations, using Bacillus Safensis. Microbes and a biocementing procedure enhanced with 35% fly ash. Salinity levels of 0%, 1%, 2%, and 3.4% were tested by curing for 28 days. The outcomes reveal that untreated soils liquefied inside of 4–6 cycles at ru = 0.8 for 0%, 2%, and 3.4% salinity. In contrast, 1% salinity delayed liquefaction to 14 cycles, thereby enhancing soil resistance. MICP-treated soils showed enhanced stiffness, decreased compressive strain, and extended resistance to liquefaction under dynamic loads. SEM and XRD analyses verified CaCO3deposition, particle bonding, and decreased pore space. The novelty lies in demonstrating the significant role of salinity in enhancing the MICP procedure and improving soil stability, providing a sustainable solution for mitigating liquefaction risks in saline coastal regions. Doi: 10.28991/CEJ-2025-011-04-010 Full Text: PDF

Estimating shear strength parameters of a fine-grained alluvial soil using resedimented samples and multivariate regression

The number of studies concerning the shear strength of resedimented alluvial soils is extremely limited compared to the studies conducted on fine-grained marine sediments, since alluvial soils are generally tested in remolded or reconstituted state especially in the studies investigating their liquefaction potential. In this study, estimation models were developed to predict cohesion (c) and internal friction angle (ϕ) parameters of a fine-grained alluvial soil using resedimented samples. A total of 60 undisturbed soil samples were obtained from Bafra district of Samsun province (Türkiye) by core drilling. A cone penetration test with pore water pressure measurement (CPTu) was also carried out alongside each borehole to determine the over-consolidation ratios of the samples. Physical-index property determinations and triaxial tests were conducted on the undisturbed samples. 20 sample sets were created with known physical, index, and strength characteristics. The samples are classified as CH, CL, MH, and ML according to the Unified Soil Classification System, with liquid and plastic limits ranging from 31.6–75% and 19.3 to 33.6% respectively. The c and ϕ values of the samples varied from 4.1 to 46.1 kPa and 26 to 35º respectively. The samples were then resedimented in the laboratory under conditions reflecting their original in-situ properties, and triaxial tests were repeated. The c and ϕ values of the resedimented samples ranged from 5.3 to 24.5 kPa and 28 to 32º respectively. The results indicate that the c values of the resedimented samples are generally lower than those of the undisturbed samples, whereas upper and lower bounds for ϕ values are similar. Multivariate regression analyses (MVR) were utilized to develop estimation models for predicting c and ϕ using strength and physical properties of 20 soil samples as independent variables. Three estimation models with R2 values varying between 0.723 and 0.797 were proposed for c and ϕ which are statistically significant for p ≤ 0.05. Using artificial neural networks (ANN), the estimation models developed by MVR were replicated to validate the models. ANN yielded very similar results to the MVR, where the R2 values for the correlations between c and ϕ values predicted by both methods varied from 0.852 to 0.955. The results indicate that c and ϕ values of undisturbed samples can be estimated with acceptable accuracy by determining basic physical and index properties of the disturbed samples and shear strength parameters of the resedimented samples. This approach, which enables the reuse of disturbed soil samples, can be used when undisturbed soil samples cannot be obtained from the field due to economic, logistical, or other reasons. Further research on the shear strength parameters of resedimented alluvial soils is needed to validate the estimation models developed in this study and enhance their applicability to a wider range of alluvial soils.

Experimental study of static liquefaction potential considering the boundaries of the Critical State Line (CSL)

This study investigates the undrained shear behaviour and static liquefaction potential of sand in various consolidation states, with a particular emphasis on very loose sand under low effective confining stresses, where a unique Normal Consolidation Line (NCL) is observed. Based on this NCL and the boundaries of Critical State Line (CSL), the samples were classified into four states: heavily overconsolidation state (HO), intermediate overconsolidation state (IO), lightly overconsolidation state (LO), and normally consolidation state (NC). The study findings revealed significant differences in the undrained shear behaviour among samples in different consolidation states. Samples in (HO) and (IO) overconsolidation states exhibited a tendency of initial contraction followed by dilation, with the difference lying in the presence of a distinct peak strength (qpeak). In contrast, samples in (LO) and (NC) only showed a contraction tendency, with the difference being in residual strength (qresidual). Finally, exploration was conducted into the potential for static liquefaction under different consolidation states. The study found that for overconsolidated samples, their liquefaction potential is mainly controlled by the state parameter ( ψ ), increasing with ψ . Conversely, for normally consolidated samples, their liquefaction potential is determined by the initial mean effective stress (p’0), it decreased with higher p’0.

Characterization of the Sedimentary Cover in the City of Aïn Témouchent, Northwest Algeria, Using Ambient Noise Measurements

The city of Aïn Témouchent, located in northwest Algeria at the westernmost part of the Lower Cheliff Basin, has experienced several moderate earthquakes, the most significant of which occurred on 22 December 1999 (Mw 5.7, 25 fatalities, severe damage). In this study, ambient noise measurements from 62 sites were analyzed using the horizontal-to-vertical spectral ratio (HVSR) method to estimate fundamental frequency (f0) and amplitude (A0). The inversion of HVSR curves provided sedimentary layer thickness and shear wave velocity (Vs) estimates. Additionally, four spatial autocorrelation (SPAC) array measurements refined the Rayleigh wave dispersion curves, improving Vs profiles (150–1350 m/s) and sediment thickness estimates (up to 390 m in the industrial zone). Vs30 and vulnerability index maps were developed to classify soil types and assess liquefaction potential within the city.

Probabilistic Liquefaction Potential Approach for Colombo Port City

The Colombo Port City, Sri Lanka's major coastal project, has been constructed by transforming 269 hectares of sea into a vibrant residential, retail, and business land area using 65 million cubic meters of dredged sand. Coastal areas undergoing land reclamation often face challenges related to liquefaction, primarily induced by natural seismic events. Recent studies underscore the importance of considering seismic events during the design phase of construction projects in Sri Lanka. This paper describes a study that performed probabilistic liquefaction hazard analyses using a well-established method. To investigate surface damage potential, the Liquefaction Potential Index method was employed. Detailed analysis of the results was used to develop maps illustrating liquefaction behaviour with depth, providing a comprehensive assessment of the potential for ground liquefaction. The comparison of the two methods indicates that, out of the four earthquake combinations considered, two scenarios are particularly critical. Additionally, certain land plots have been identified as more vulnerable to liquefaction.

The Role of Dynamic Seepage Response in Sediment Transport and Tsunami‐Induced Scour

AbstractTsunamis have long been recognized to destabilize the seabed by causing severe erosion and potential liquefaction. However, the effect of the dynamic seepage response induced by tsunami loading on sediment transport remains elusive. Here, we explicitly quantify the role and mechanics of seepage response in field‐scale tsunami‐induced bed mobility and scour through theoretical analyses and fully coupled hydrodynamic and morphological simulations. The increased hydraulic gradient can lower the onset threshold of the sediment motion, thus facilitating sediment transport. In the meantime, it can also curtail the fluid–sediment momentum transfer, consequently weakening sediment transport. The competing effects of seepage response on the onset threshold and fluid agitation are such that the seepage response during the depression wave does not necessarily increase bed mobility. The suspended load transport can dominate the near‐field scour processes, as demonstrated with the scour beneath a submarine pipeline. The seabed suction response to the elevation wave shows insignificant effects on the continuous exchange between the suspended load and bed load, although it inhibits the near‐bed sediment concentration. The seabed injection response to the depression wave induces more bed load particles to be entrained into the water column, contributing to the increased concentration. This results in increased sediment transport and exacerbated scour, especially for the bed liquefaction scenario. The seepage response plays a critical role in the spatiotemporal variations of the seabed morphology and the sediment suspension. The outcomes significantly update the knowledge about the role of seepage in the progress of tsunami‐induced sediment transport and scour.

Identifying lateral resistance behavior of short pile foundations in liquefaction soil

Currently, infrastructure development in earthquake-prone areas can overcome major challenges related to soil liquefaction phenomena, especially in areas with high earthquake intensity. This is a critical issue in foundation design, especially short pile foundations. One important aspect influencing the behavior of foundations in soil experiencing liquefaction is lateral resistance, which directly affects the stability and ability of the foundation to withstand lateral loads. The object of the study is to determine the lateral occupant behavior of short pile foundations with variations in vertical load, foundation depth, in liquid soil. This research was carried out with a series of tests on groups of rigid piles on sandy soil that received earthquake loads. The sand material used comes from Lumajang with a uniform density to ensure consistent soil conditions in each test. The length of the pile is determined based on the pile stiffness factor (T), with L values of 1T, 1.5T, and 2T. The vertical load applied to the pile is varied by 0.1Pu, 0.2Pu, and 0.3Pu, where Pu is the ultimate load of the pile. The research results show that pore water pressure fluctuations can be an indicator of significant liquefaction potential. Specifically, at a soil density of 20 %, the pore water pressure fluctuates in the range of 1 to 3 kPa and can reach Ru values close to or equal to 1. Another result is that the relationship between lateral deformation and lateral load in pile foundations shows an increase in linear load, and lateral deformation is not the only factor that influences the load resistance of piles. However, there are also factors such as soil conditions and the characteristics of the pile material itself

Impact of Soil Heterogeneity on Stochastic SANISAND Constitutive Model and Static Liquefaction Potential

Impact of Soil Heterogeneity on Stochastic SANISAND Constitutive Model and Static Liquefaction Potential

Sustainable ground improvement and hybrid foundation for tank farm on liquefiable coastal deposit: Case study

Coastal deposits, often weak and young soils with high groundwater levels, pose significant geotechnical challenges, particularly under seismic loads that exacerbate liquefaction risks. This study examines a sustainability-driven approach to ground improvement and foundation design for a coastal tank farm. In-situ and laboratory tests identified the depth and extent of liquefiable layers, leading to the selection of deep dynamic compaction as the most sustainable technique, considering economic, environmental, and social criteria. Using tampers weighing 11 and 23 tons dropped from heights of 18–28 m in square patterns with 2 and 5 m spacing, the ground was successfully compacted. SPT, PLT, and field density tests demonstrated the method’s effectiveness, showing a 15% increase in dry unit weight, a 13% rise in relative density, and complete mitigation of liquefaction potential. Two foundation systems, a raft and a hybrid semi-deep ring foundation were evaluated. The hybrid foundation system proved superior in bearing capacity and settlement performance while reducing concrete usage by substituting confined natural geomaterials. This approach minimized the carbon footprint and advanced sustainability in geotechnical design.

Estimation of soil liquefaction using artificial intelligence techniques: an extended comparison between machine and deep learning approaches

This study investigates the effectiveness of various deep learning (DL) algorithms in predicting soil liquefaction susceptibility. We explore a spectrum of algorithms, including machine learning models such as Support Vector Machines (SVMs), K-Nearest Neighbors (KNN), and Logistic Regression (LR), alongside DL architectures like Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs), Long Short-Term Memory networks (LSTMs), Bidirectional LSTMs (BiLSTMs), and Gated Recurrent Units (GRUs). The performance of these algorithms is assessed using comprehensive metrics, including accuracy, precision, recall, F1-score, receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analysis, and area under the curve (AUC). Cross-entropy loss is employed as the loss function during model training to optimize the differentiation between liquefiable and non-liquefiable soil samples. Our findings reveal that the GRU model achieved the highest overall accuracy of 0.98, followed by the BiLSTM model with an accuracy of 0.95. Notably, the BiLSTM model excelled in precision for class 1, attaining a score of 0.96 on the test dataset. These results underscore the potential of both GRU and BiLSTM models in predicting soil liquefaction susceptibility, with the BiLSTM model’s simpler architecture proving particularly effective in certain metrics and datasets. The findings of this study could assist practitioners in seismic risk assessment by providing more accurate and reliable tools for evaluating soil liquefaction potential, thereby enhancing mitigation strategies and informing decision-making in earthquake-prone areas. This study contributes to developing robust tools for liquefaction hazard assessment, ultimately supporting improved seismic risk mitigation.

Review of earthquake-induced liquefaction potential in reclaimed urban areas: Insights from Dhaka city

This review paper examines the potential for earthquake-induced liquefaction in reclaimed urban areas, with a focus on Dhaka City as a case study. Rapid urbanization and land reclamation in Dhaka have increased concerns about the stability of reclaimed lands during seismic events. This paper synthesizes findings from prior studies, focusing on geotechnical parameters such as SPT-N values, cone tip resistance, local friction, and friction ratio. Key influencing factors, including peak ground acceleration, earthquake magnitude, soil type, and reclamation methods, are analyzed to assess their role in liquefaction susceptibility. Evidence suggests that areas reclaimed with dredged soil, especially at shallow to moderate depths, are more prone to liquefaction under seismic loading. Variability in parameters such as over-consolidation ratio, lateral earth pressure, and internal friction angle highlights the need for localized investigations. This review emphasizes the importance of integrating advanced geotechnical techniques and seismic risk assessments to ensure the resilience of reclaimed urban areas.

Micro-mechanism analysis of Zhongchuan loess liquefaction disaster induced by Jishishan M6.2 earthquake in 2023

Abstract On December 18, 2023, the M S 6.2 Jishishan earthquake triggered a large-scale liquefaction disaster of loess sites in Jintian and Caotan villages, Zhongchuan town, Minhe County, Haidong City, Qinghai Province. To clarify the micro-mechanism of the liquefaction disaster, the Q3 Malan loess layer of the disaster site and its overlying red silty clay layer samples were selected and quantitatively analyzed for the differences in physical properties, structure, microstructural parameters, and mineral compositions. Based on the discrepancy results, the micro-mechanisms between loess microstructure and macro-mechanical properties of soil and liquefaction disaster were investigated. The research shows that compared with red silty clay, the dynamic index of loess corresponding to the physical indices of Zhongchuan loess obviously exceeds the critical threshold of liquefaction under actual seismic intensity. Additionally, its pore structure is dominated by point contact and weakly cemented overhead macropore structure, and its quantitative pore microstructure parameters and mineral composition show significant liquefaction potential. The comprehensive analysis of the liquefaction mechanism shows that the rapid deformation of the soil skeleton and the destruction of the cementation and contact system of the water-sensitive minerals under seismic loading and hydraulic force lead to the collapse of the overhead macropores, the damage of structural strength, the increase of the complex pore channels, the rapid accumulation of pore water pressure, and the reduction of the effective stress, which leads to the liquefaction of the loess.

Liquefaction potential evaluation using near-surface seismic refraction tomography: a case study

Abstract The most common and preferred method of evaluating liquefaction potential is using simplified method based on Standard Penetration Test (SPT) blow counts. However, there are conditions where the application of SPTs are limited or simply not feasible. When these conditions arise, alternative methods, such as in situ shear-wave velocity (VS ) measurement, may be applied. In situ VS measurement can be conducted using several different methods, such as crosshole, downhole, suspension logger, seismic cone, spectral or multichannel analysis of surface waves, and surface reflection or refraction. Compared with other VS measurement methods, the use of near-surface seismic refraction tomography for liquefaction evaluation is still limited at best. Hence, this study aims to use a series of seismic refraction tomography data to assess the liquefaction potential at Yogyakarta – Bawen toll road in Magelang, Central Java. VS values were derived from seismic refraction tomographies at four sites. Bore log data and index properties from laboratory tests were also used for the evaluation. The liquefaction factor of safety (FS) were calculated using VS -based simplified method and the liquefaction potential were expressed with the Liquefaction Potential Index (LPI). Liquefaction potential evaluations using SPT blow counts were also calculated for comparison purpose. The study finds that both VS -based and SPT-based evaluations reached the same conclusion: sites A to C are potentially liquefiable, while site D is non-liquefiable. But, evaluation with VS found to be more conservative than with SPT. Findings from this study suggest that the use of near-surface seismic refraction tomography for liquefaction potential evaluation may be justified in certain conditions, such as in a preliminary investigation.