Linguistic Resources Research Articles

A Large Language Model-Based Approach for Multilingual Hate Speech Detection on Social Media

The proliferation of hate speech on social media platforms poses significant threats to digital safety, social cohesion, and freedom of expression. Detecting such content—especially across diverse languages—remains a challenging task due to linguistic complexity, cultural context, and resource limitations. To address these challenges, this study introduces a comprehensive approach for multilingual hate speech detection. To facilitate robust hate speech detection across diverse languages, this study makes several key contributions. First, we created a novel trilingual hate speech dataset consisting of 10,193 manually annotated tweets in English, Spanish, and Urdu. Second, we applied two innovative techniques—joint multilingual and translation-based approaches—for cross-lingual hate speech detection that have not been previously explored for these languages. Third, we developed detailed hate speech annotation guidelines tailored specifically to all three languages to ensure consistent and high-quality labeling. Finally, we conducted 41 experiments employing machine learning models with TF–IDF features, deep learning models utilizing FastText and GloVe embeddings, and transformer-based models leveraging advanced contextual embeddings to comprehensively evaluate our approach. Additionally, we employed a large language model with advanced contextual embeddings to identify the best solution for the hate speech detection task. The experimental results showed that our GPT-3.5-turbo model significantly outperforms strong baselines, achieving up to an 8% improvement over XLM-R in Urdu hate speech detection and an average gain of 4% across all three languages. This research not only contributes a high-quality multilingual dataset but also offers a scalable and inclusive framework for hate speech detection in underrepresented languages.

Positive covariation or trade-off? A cross-disciplinary investigation of shell nouns and their congruent expressions in research articles

Abstract Despite considerable attention to their textual/semantic/cognitive functions, shell nouns have rarely been examined as linguistic resources of nominalization in relation to alternative, congruent expressions (e.g., reporting clauses and evaluative clauses) to map out how such linguistic resources are used in academic writing. This cross-disciplinary study examined the use of shell nouns in 240 research articles drawn from four disciplines (physics, chemical engineering, sociology, and education) that represent two disciplinary groupings (i.e., hard/soft disciplines and pure/applied disciplines). Statistical analyses of shell nouns and their alternative, congruent constructions revealed that the two soft disciplines used shell nouns in all functional (sub) categories and their congruent constructions significantly more frequently than the two hard disciplines did. By contrast, few significant differences were found between the pure and applied disciplines in the use of shell noun constructions and their alternative expressions. Further correlational analyses pointed to a positive covariation rather than a trade-off between shell noun constructions and their congruent expressions in the construction of disciplinary knowledge. The observed patterns of use are attributable to the prevalent knowledge legitimation codes and the distinctive textual styles characteristic of hard and soft disciplines.

Voices from the waterside: a sociolinguistic study of fish trade communication in itu

The linguistic dynamics and communication patterns of fish dealers in three important waterside communities: Obot Itu beach, Mbiabo bridge beach, and Oku Iboku water front are examined in this study. Using a sociolinguistic approach, the study examines the strategic use of language in the context of fish trading, emphasising the interaction of communication, culture, and commerce. To guarantee a thorough analysis, the study used a survey method in addition to focused group interviews, non-participant observation, and secondary data sources. Thirty informants in all were purposefully chosen from the previously stated locations. Speech Act Theory served as the analytical framework for the descriptive analysis of the data, allowing for the identification and interpretation of a variety of speech acts that define the transactional and interpersonal interactions among fish dealers, including directions, commissives, expressives, and assertives. The results show that the trading communities' socioeconomic realities and cultural values are reflected in the abundant use of indigenous linguistic resources, context-specific jargon, and practical techniques. In addition to providing insights into how language shapes social interaction in local marketplaces, this research advances our understanding of grassroots economic communication.

Переклад екологічної реклами: труднощі і тонкощі

The language of advertising represents a unique type of media discourse, characterized by its multimodal nature. Environmental advertising, in particular, merges linguistic and visual semiotic resources to create coherent and persuasive messages aimed at influencing public awareness and ecological behavior. The increasing global attention to environmental issues has led to a growing need for the effective cross-cultural communication of ecological values, often mediated through translated advertising texts. However, translating environmental advertisements poses numerous challenges due to the interaction of verbal and visual modes, cultural references, and persuasive intentions. This study aims to explore the structural, functional, and semiotic features of environmental advertising texts and to analyze the main difficulties and strategies involved in their translation. Special attention is given to the multimodal characteristics of environmental posters and advertisements and how these impact the process of rendering meaning in the target language. Methods. The research is based on qualitative content analysis of a selected corpus of authentic environmental advertising materials in English. The analysis focuses on identifying the translation techniques used to preserve both form and persuasive function, the functions of these advertisements, the interplay of verbal and non-verbal elements. The study employs a functionalist approach in translation studies, combined with elements of multimodal discourse analysis. Results. The analysis revealed that environmental advertisements fulfill multiple communicative functions, such as informative, persuasive, emotional, aesthetic, educational, and motivating. Structurally, they combine verbal elements with typographic and visual components such as font size, color, layout, visual metaphors, and symbolic imagery. These elements are often used strategically to enhance the argumentation and overall impact of the message. Translators must consider both linguistic content and visual context, as well as the cultural expectations of the target audience. The study identified a range of effective translation strategies, including literal translation, adaptation, and creative translation, with the choice of strategy depending on the dominant function of the original text. Originality. This research contributes to the relatively underexplored area of translating multimodal environmental advertising. It offers a systematic overview of the functional diversity and visual complexity of such texts and emphasizes the importance of interdisciplinary approaches that combine linguistics, translation studies, and semiotics. The findings provide practical insights for translators working in the field of eco-communication and media localization. Conclusion. Translating environmental advertisements requires more than linguistic competence; it demands an understanding of multimodality, cultural semiotics, and persuasive communication strategies. The study concludes that successful translation in this domain is based on a flexible, function-oriented approach that integrates both textual and visual dimensions. Future research may focus on audience reception studies, the role of digital media formats, and the comparative analysis of translation practices across different cultural and linguistic contexts.

Intertwining social, affective, and digital dynamics: a masspersonal communication model to analyze home language maintenance

In multilingual families, sustaining home languages is increasingly challenged by digitalization and evolving communication patterns. This study proposes a new analytical model to analyze how home language development and maintenance are shaped by three overlapping communication contexts: interpersonal, mass, and masspersonal communication. Grounded in the masspersonal communication model (MPCM) proposed by O’Sullivan and Carr, the model highlights how emotional attachment, interactive routines, and cognitive perceptions operate across these contexts. Interpersonal communication fosters intimacy and habitual language use; mass communication amplifies access to linguistic resources and influences parental ideologies through media exposure; and masspersonal communication, blending public and private dimensions, enables performative, collaborative, and feedback-driven practices that strengthen language identity and emotional ties. Practical recommendations for policy, education, and family language practices are outlined, emphasizing integrative approaches to leverage these intersecting forces. This study addresses a key theoretical gap by offering a model that captures how digitally mediated environments reshape language practices at home. Future research is encouraged to empirically validate the model and to trace affective and cognitive dynamics in home language socialization. By revealing the complex interplay between digital technologies, social interactions, and linguistic identities, this study advances conceptual understanding of home language maintenance in an interconnected, multilingual world.

Translanguaging in assessments: perspectives on the strategies and implications for multilingual classrooms

Despite South African higher education consisting of a large number of multilingual students and teachers, assessments remain largely based on English monolingual constructs. This demands that all students taking the assessments should be proficient in the language of assessment. Monolingual assessments undermine the multilingual competencies of multilingual students and the diverse linguistic resources that enable them to best indicate their understanding and knowledge. Assessment practices conducted with English monolingual ideology bring about underachievement and demotivation for students whose first language is not English. To counter such negative effects, this article brings forth translanguaging in assessments. Translanguaging in assessment allows multilingual students to ‘shuttle’ between all their existing linguistic resources to indicate what they know and what they can do with the knowledge. This conceptual article reflects on the negative aspects of monolingual assessments and why they are not fair, not valid and bring about inequalities in attainment of learning outcomes. It then reviews literature on translanguaging in assessments. Later, the article brings forth the strategies and approaches that can be used to initiate translanguaging in assessments in multilingual settings. Last, but not least, the article discusses the implications of translanguaging assessments for pedagogy and for language policy, especially in South Africa.

Word association and communality of thought.

The word association task has been a standard form of assessment and research tool for over a century, used for investigating how concepts are associated with each other and how they are linked to words. In the 1950s, researchers at the Loyola University, Chicago altered the original free word association test instructions in a fundamental way. They asked participants to provide the word that they thought most other people would say. The purpose of this new manipulation was to assess peoples' ability to reflect on intrapersonal knowledge. The ideas of Henry Stack Sullivan (1892-1949) and David Rapaport (1911-1960) about the role of interpersonal relations to mental health were used to frame the approach. The concept of "communality of thought" represents the mental process that was being measured. In the mid-20th century, psychologist Vincent V. Herr, SJ (1905-1971) directed a research project exploring the relation between linguistic, cognitive, and emotional resources by testing people having various age, sociocultural, educational, and personality characteristics. The aim was to assess peoples' degree of empathy to "the unknown other." This approach represented an interesting innovation in psychological assessment. It gained little traction in the field because of a variety of contextual circumstances. The development of this assessment and the theorizing around it is revisited here to consider its significance as a means of addressing research questions in psychology, psychiatry, and linguistics on issues of interest regarding a normative notion of shared social linguistic knowledge. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2025 APA, all rights reserved).

Derivational Morphology and Compounding: a descriptive study towards enhancing the learning and teaching of Gugbe

This study examines the morphological processes involved in word formation in Gugbe, a language spoken in West Africa, with particular focus on Nigeria and Benin. Unlike previous research, which has primarily explored Gugbe syntax (Aboh, 2017; 2007; 2005; 1999; 1998), this study shifts focus to morphology, addressing the gap in understanding of word-formation processes in the language. Building on Adjibi’s (2020) work on Gugbe names and words associated with ‘ogú’ (the god of iron), the objectives here are to outline key Gugbe word-formation mechanisms and compare them to English morphological structures. Methodologically, the study analyzes words, phrases, and sentences from everyday speech and native songs, assessing morphological markers. Results show that Gugbe employs diverse processes: prefixation (e.g., otò, ‘country’), suffixation (mítọn, ‘our’), compounding (Gbé-kanlin, ‘wild animal’), reduplication (dagbedagbe, ‘very good’), calquing (Sȩnami, ‘God gave it to me’), clipping under calquing (Mìjoședo), and borrowing (blȩdi, ‘bread’). Notably, while most compound words in Gugbe are right-headed (e.g., gbékanlin, ‘wild animal’), some are left-headed or non-headed. This investigation expands understanding of Gugbe morphology, enriching linguistic resources for Gugbe learners and prompting further research into Gugbe lexical innovation.

An Analysis Of Code Swithcing Used On Puella’s Video Youtube Channel By Cinta Laura With Yosi Sudarso

This study analyzes the phenomenon of code-switching in the YouTube video series on Puella’s channel, featuring Cinta Laura and Yosi Sudarso. Code-switching refers to the practice of alternating between two or more languages or dialects within a conversation, which is often used for emphasis, cultural expression, or convenience. In this analysis, we examine the contexts in which Cinta Laura and Yosi Sudarso switch between Indonesian, English, and sometimes other languages, and how this practice reflects their identities, communication styles, and the social dynamics of their audience. The study identifies specific instances of code-switching, categorizing them into situational, conversational, and social purposes, and discusses the role of code-switching in fostering a more casual, relatable, and dynamic interaction between the hosts and their viewers. By analyzing these linguistic choices, this research offers insights into how bilingual individuals navigate their linguistic resources in a media-driven environment and how language choice can enhance communication and engagement in digital platforms.

The Development of Nominal Synsets for the Saraiki Language: A Corpus-based Analysis

This paper focuses on developing nominal synsets for the Saraiki language (SL), a lesser-studied language spoken in Pakistan. Nominal synsets are groups of nouns that share semantic characteristics and are crucial for natural language processing tasks such as information retrieval, machine translation, and text classification. The research aims to create Saraiki Nominal Synsets (SNS) using the Gurumukhi Punjabi WordNet. The study employs a hybrid approach, combining merge and expansion techniques for analysis and gathers data from PDF textbooks, online sources, and the Saraiki Wikimedia incubator. The collected data is limited to texts published between 2000 and 2019, and manually tagged using Antconc 3.4.4.0 wordlist due to the unavailability of a tagger for the Saraiki Language. The study builds a 2.2 million Saraiki word corpus and a list of 750 nouns, then categorizes and semantically organizes the Saraiki Nominal Synsets based on the list of Saraiki nouns. To identify and classify nouns in SL based on their semantic properties, a corpus-based approach is utilized, and nominal synsets are constructed using a combination of manual and automatic methods. Evaluating the quality of the synsets involves comparing them to existing lexical resources and conducting a semantic similarity analysis. The results demonstrate the effectiveness of the approach in capturing semantic relations among nouns in SL and producing synsets useful for various NLP applications. Overall, this study contributes to the development of linguistic resources for lesser-studied languages and provides valuable support for researchers and developers working on natural language processing tasks involving SL.

Teachers’ opinions on the education of Ukrainian refugee students (in Polish schools)

Research objectives (aims) and problem(s): The research objective was to explore Polish teachers’ opinions on the form and conditions for optimizing the educational process of refugee students from Ukraine, as well as the difficulties related to broadly understood education. Research methods: The study employed a scale created by the author, which covered seven areas: the optimal system and forms of education for refugee students from Ukraine, conditions for optimizing their education (including environmental adjustments), possible difficulties and demotivators, and the priority needs of refugee students. Additionally, the issue of teacher preparedness for working with refugee students was considered. Research findings and their impact on the development of educational sciences: Teachers emphasized the necessity of smaller class sizes, psychological support, and access to interpreters as critical for optimizing educational outcomes for refugee students. They also pointed to challenges that refugee students face, such as language barriers and emotional distress, highlighting the need for specialized teacher training in intercultural sensitivity and trauma-informed methods. These findings underscore the growing recognition in the field of the need for inclusive and adaptive educational strategies. Conclusions and/or recommendations: Teacher training programs should prioritize intercultural competence and trauma-sensitive approaches to better prepare educators to support the unique needs of refugee students. Recommendations include integrating structured psychological support and linguistic resources within schools to foster a supportive learning environment in culturally diverse educational settings.

Narrowing history curriculum implementation gaps in Southern African countries: undoing the English hegemony

Despite the availability of well-crafted school history curricula in Southern African countries, policy-practice dissonance remains evident, suggesting some factors continue to widen implementation gaps. Employing policy documents and extant literature, this conceptual paper engages Bourdieu’s conceptual triad of practice – capital, habitus, and field – to make a case that employing dominant languages by teachers in history classrooms cultivates epistemic injustice and marginalises the students’ identities, thereby widening rather than narrowing history curriculum implementation gaps. Understanding how linguistic capital, habitus and field impact the history curriculum implementation gaps can provide fundamental insights into how school history teaching can be improved, not only in schools in Southern Africa but across the world where teachers overlook the linguistic resources that students bring to the class. The paper extends the discourse that questions the English hegemony in the implementation of the school history curriculum in countries that are characterised by linguistic diversity. Suggestions are proposed to dismantle English hegemony in the teaching of the school history curriculum, ultimately joining the implementation dots.

Formal education, organised leisure, and informal discourse in Basque: improving the linguistic proficiency of new speakers and fostering motivation and attachment to the language

ABSTRACT This paper examines the impact of educational interventions to target informal speech development in Basque, a minority language in northern Spain, and in the south of France. We explore how structured leisure, games, and recreational activities – both inside and outside the classroom – can serve as effective pedagogical tools and foster motivation and attachment to the language. Employing a quantitative methodology, the study involved 5th-year primary school students from the Basque Autonomous Community (Bizkaia, Alava, and Gipuzkoa) and the Autonomous Community of Navarra (n = 208). Statistical analysis of the results indicates the interventions had a positive impact on motivation and emotional attachment to Basque. Statistically significant differences were observed between students from different sociolinguistic contexts. Distinctions were also found between those with Basque as their first language (L1) and those acquiring it as a second (L2) or third language (L3). Despite these contrasts, the interventions effectively supported language acquisition for new speakers and were also beneficial for students from predominantly Spanish-speaking environments. The findings suggest that these interventions not only increased linguistic knowledge and resources but also reduced communicative anxiety, strengthened linguistic awareness, fostered a sense of community, and created positive emotional learning experiences.

Explain and engage: linguistic resources in Swedish as a second language textbooks to support academic writing

Upper secondary school textbooks are widely used as educational material. Textbooks can, however, differ greatly, for example in the choice of linguistic resources. Comparing textbooks can therefore highlight how students will have access to different kinds of support in their learning process. This study explores the support found in textbooks for upper secondary Swedish as a second language students as they prepare for a high-stake writing test. Six textbooks are analysed regarding two types of linguistic resources, for explaining writing and engaging the students. Systemic functional linguistics are employed to examine explaining resources (lexical and conjunctive cohesion) as well as engaging resources (addressing the reader and appraisal). The results display how the varying presence of such resources influences the range of potential support available to the students and how teachers need to use textbooks in a conscious and critical manner. To strengthen teachers’ professional judgement as textbook users, the article presents a toolbox of linguistic resources for explaining and engaging in the classroom.

Lexibank 2: pre-computed features for large-scale lexical data

Large-scale lexical and grammatical datasets nowadays play an important role in comparative linguistics. However, the lack of standardization remains a challenge exacerbating extension and reuse of published data. We present an updated version of Lexibank, a large-scale lexical dataset, expanding on previous efforts to standardize and unify cross-linguistic data. This new version includes over 3,100 languages and more than one-and-a-half million word forms, substantially broadening the scope and utility of the previous resource. Our dataset has been systematically curated using a dedicated computer-assisted workflow designed specifically for the lifting of published wordlist data to the standards recommended by the Cross-Linguistic Data Formats initiative. The expanded dataset features standardized references to language varieties, standardized semantic glosses that reference the concepts expressed by individual word forms, and standardized phonetic transcriptions for all word forms that our repository contains. Based on those standardizations we pre-compute semantic and phonological features, which can be used to carry out extensive automated analyses. We illustrate this potential by providing dedicated database queries to (1) infer words that are similar in pronunciation and meaning, (2) identify concepts that are colexified across languages in our sample, and (3) assess the semantic diversity of etymologically related words. These queries are not only fast to execute but also global in their scope, due to the largescale coverage provided by Lexibank 2. The queries are also easy to extend, thus having the potential to contribute to various studies in historical linguistics, linguistic typology, and related disciplines. The updated dataset is a substantial step forward in the effort to create comprehensive, standardized, and accessible linguistic resources.

KAZAKH ORTHOGRAPHY: A STUDY ON THE NORMATIVE FORMS OF “KYRKUIEK/KYRGUIEK”

This study examines the orthographic variation of the Kazakh word Kyrkuiek/Kyrguiek (“September”), a subject of ongoing public debate regarding its correct spelling. The issue is significant for maintaining orthographic consistency and preserving cultural identity within the Kazakh language. The aim of the research is to determine the normative spelling of the term through an analysis of orthographic dictionaries published between 1941 and 2013, and a sociolinguistic survey involving 367 participants from 17 regions of Kazakhstan, as well as from Turkey and Russia. The study also explores the historical and etymological development of the word and reviews its representation in explanatory dictionaries and online linguistic resources such as soztekser.kz and qazcorpus.kz. A mixed-methods approach was adopted, combining historical-linguistic analysis with quantitative and qualitative survey methods. The survey assessed participants’ reliance on orthographic dictionaries, attitudes toward Kazakh spelling norms, and preferences between the variants Kyrkuiek and Kyrguiek. The findings indicate a strong preference for the Kyrkuiek spelling, despite inconsistencies in official sources over time. The article advocates for the standardization of Kyrkuiek as the correct form and recommends including phonetic transcriptions in dictionaries to reconcile pronunciation with orthography. This research contributes to addressing orthographic ambiguity in the Kazakh language and offers practical recommendations relevant to language policy, education, and public linguistic awareness.

KidsNARRATE: a versatile corpus for studying Chinese-english bilingual L2 narrative skills in preschoolers

Abstract Narrative skills are crucial for young children as they not only indicate literacy and academic performance but also serve as effective tools to foster children’s relationships with the world. However, the linguistic resources for narratives produced by bilingual children are often limited, posing major challenges to the fields of child language development and language resource studies. Moreover, with the increasing prevalence of remote data collection, there are few guidelines on how to collect such data remotely. In this context, we present kidsNARRATE. KidsNARRATE is a non-native speech corpus designed to study the narrative comprehension of Chinese-English bilingual children in their L2 English. KidsNARRATE comprises 6 hours of audio recordings of children taking the narrative test Multilingual Instrument for Narratives (MAIN), along with transcriptions, human-rated scores, and annotations of grammatical and pronunciation errors at the word level. The audio recordings of the English section have been processed to meet the requirements of certain machine learning applications. Additionally, for cognitive baseline comparison, kidsNARRATE contains the audio and video data of the same group of children taking the parallel MAIN test in L1 Chinese. In the course of this study, we developed a remote recording method using accessible recording tools and an easy-to-use setup. Despite its simplicity, the data collected using this method meets the rigorous requirements for machine learning studies and is also suitable for linguistic research. This method can serve as a specific template for researchers and educators seeking to remotely record audio and/or video data for linguistic studies. Overall, the rich linguistic content and compatibility with machine learning processes make kidsNARRATE a valuable resource for studies of early child L2 acquisition and the development of children’s speech patterns in the field of automatic speech recognition. Finally, we propose future work regarding data collection methods and second language teaching.

The Discursive Construction of Victimhood in Anti- and Pro-LGBTQ+ Rhetoric on Malaysian Social Media

ABSTRACT While symbolic elites have traditionally monopolized victimhood discourse through discursive power, social media has disrupted these dynamics by enabling ordinary individuals to deploy such discourse, creating a landscape where victimhood emerges as a contested terrain of ideological values. Despite substantial scholarly attention to the invocation of victimhood in justifying dominant ideologies within institutional and top-down contexts, literature on victimhood in bottom-up discourses remains comparatively scarce, particularly LGBTQ+ communities. This study addresses this gap by examining how victimhood is constructed in both anti- and pro-LGBTQ+ discourses on Malaysian social media, utilizing van Leeuwen’s socio-semantic approach to Critical Discourse Studies. Our findings reveal competing victimhood discourses constructed through the polarized ways of manipulating LGBTQ+ individuals’ sociological agency. Anti-LGBTQ+ discourse amplifies LGBTQ+ individuals’ agency through activation in material transactions, passivation paired with negation, activation of their actions, and association with criminal perpetrators, representing them as powerful victimizers. Pro-LGBTQ+ discourse, conversely, diminishes their agency through passivation, reactions, non-transactions, activation in material transactions combined with negation and interrogation, and association with victims of persecution, positioning them as disempowered victims. Our study highlights how multiple discursive strategies and linguistic resources work in tandem to shape agency, establishing victim-victimizer dynamics that legitimize opposing ideological positions.

A Positive Discourse Analysis Based on the Attitude System in Appraisal Theory — Taking Chang'an as an Example

This paper conducts an in-depth analysis of the positive discourse in the film "The Long March of the Tang Dynasty" based on the "Attitude System" within Appraisal Theory. The research reveals that the film successfully constructs a positive discourse attitude through carefully selected linguistic resources. Among them, emotional resources occupy a dominant position in the film, effec-tively portraying character images and conveying the film's core values through the con-trast between positive and negative emotions. Although judgment re-sources and appreciation resources are relatively scarce in quantity, they still play an indis-pensable role in the film, contributing to the overall positive effect of the film's discourse. This study not only helps us gain a deeper understanding of the appli-cation of Appraisal Theory in discourse analysis, but also provides new perspec-tives and insights for the positive construction of film discourse.

A systematic review of research on translanguaging in STEM education

ABSTRACT There is an increasing population of multilingual learners undertaking science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education in other languages. To equitably facilitate their disciplinary meaning making, research on translanguaging characterises how multilingual learners draw on diverse linguistic and modal resources to make meaning. This article aims to reveal the trend of research on translanguaging in the four disciplines, including 109 full texts published between 2011 and 2024. Five aspects of these full texts were analysed: (1) overall characteristics (e.g. publication year, type of publication, continent, discipline and educational stage); (2) methodologies; (3) type of modal and linguistic resources examined; (4) types of disciplinary learning outcomes; (5) position of integrated STEM learning. Overall, studies on translanguaging in the four content areas are concentrated in science and maths education. Also, the studies are dominated by naturalistic methodologies, while different disciplines have their modal and linguistic resources characterised. The learning outcomes examined in these studies overlooked disciplinary meaning in the four content areas. Moreover, there are only a few studies identifying how translanguaging facilitates integration of STEM disciplines. Thus there is a need for more studies in engineering and technology education, targeting disciplinary meaning, identifying how translanguaging facilitate integrated STEM education.