Pyrolysis Of Lignocellulosic Biomass Research Articles

Kinetic Study on The Slow Pyrolysis of Isolated Cellulose and Lignin from Teak Sawdust

This study was conducted to explicate the stages of biomass pyrolysis by using a comprehensive kinetics study. The pyrolysis was performed on teak sawdust and its isolated klason lignin and cellulose. Pyrolysis experiments were carried out on Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA) with 3 different heating rates at 5, 10, and 20 K min−1. The results were analyzed with 2 model-free methods of Kissinger-Akahira-Sunose (KAS) and Ozawa-Flynn-Wall (OFW), and a model-fitting method of nth-order Distributed Activation Energy Model (DAEM). The model-free kinetics analyses using KAS and OFW methods gave consistent activation energy trends for all samples. In teak sawdust pyrolysis, the activation energy fluctuates with the increase of conversion between 235-252 kJ mol−1. For cellulose, the activation energy increased along with the conversion from 208 to 240 kJ mol−1. Whereas for lignin, the activation energy widely ranges between 80-250 kJ mol−1. Further exploration using the multi-component nth-order DAEM was conducted to provide deeper insight on multistage pyrolysis reaction. The 4 components DAEM successfully provided a satisfying mathematical fit to the experimental data of teak sawdust pyrolysis. The proposed model was able to capture the two stages of lignin pyrolysis. The method that has been demonstrated here gave a broader insight to the application of DAEM in describing lignocellulosic biomass pyrolysis.

Exploring kinetic mechanisms of biomass pyrolysis using generalized logistic mixture model

Pyrolysis is one of promising possible paths for converting waste biomass to heat, bio-fuels, or higher value chemicals. The pyrolysis of biomass involves several overlapping processes due to its complex composition and the complexity of pyrolysis reactions. The characterization and applicability of the generalized logistic mixture model in the kinetic analysis of simulated processes and lignocellulosic biomass pyrolysis processes were investigated. The generalized logistic model showed asymmetrical kinetic profiles, which could fit the simulated DAEM and parallel processes more accurately than the logistic and Weibull models. The pyrolysis kinetic data of xylan, cellulose and lignin could be accurately described by the generalized logistic model with a single component. The pyrolysis kinetics of raw and acid-infused corn stovers was well fitted by the generalized logistic mixture model with three components, and the characterization of individual sub-processes separated from the model could reflect the acid infusion mechanism of corn stover. The generalized logistic mixture model effectively separated the pyrolysis process of raw and acid-washed cotton stalk into three sub-processes, and the kinetic analysis of individual sub-processes using the Friedman isoconversional method showed that those separated sub-processes corresponded to the thermal decomposition of pseudo-components of hemicellulose, cellulose and lignin. Acid washing could reduce the fraction of pseudo-hemicellulose, and increase the pseudo-lignin fraction according to the results from the generalized logistic mixture model. The generalized logistic mixture model enables us to obtain the further kinetic information of the individual processes for lignocellulosic biomass pyrolysis.

Predicting bio-oil yield obtained from lignocellulosic biomass pyrolysis using artificial neural networks

ABSTRACT The prediction of bio-oil yield from pyrolysis of lignocellulosic biomass is important for processes optimization, modeling, and installation’s design. This work models the bio-oil of lignocellulosic biomass yield by Artificial Neural Networks (ANN), being the inputs: cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, pyrolysis temperature, heating rate, N2 flow rate, and particle size. A database was created with 34 biomass types, modeling with 329 samples, training with 80%, and validating with 20%. A previous stage of screening was carried out with 100% of data for choosing the algorithm of the second phase and the number of neurons in the hidden layer; the selection criteria were the mean absolute error (MAE) and the correlation coefficient. The best performance was for backpropagation/Levenberg-Marquardt with 7:13:1 as ANN architecture. All ANN with less than 1% of MAE were tested for validating and the weight’s matrix of the best one is shown. The selected network with a correlation coefficient of 0.9739 and MAE of 1.7159% for validation, only had four outlier values between 5 and 6%, the remaining 62 samples with all 263 used in training, had less than 5% of difference compared to the experimental values, thus representing a very accurate model for predicting bio-oil yield.

Catalytic pyrolysis of lignocellulosic biomass for bio-oil production: A review

Catalytic pyrolysis has been widely explored for bio-oil production from lignocellulosic biomass owing to its high feasibility and large-scale production potential. The aim of this review was to summarize recent findings on bio-oil production through catalytic pyrolysis using lignocellulosic biomass as feedstock. Lignocellulosic biomass, structural components and fundamentals of biomass catalytic pyrolysis were explored and summarized. The current status of bio-oil yield and quality from catalytic fast pyrolysis was reviewed and presented in the current review. The potential effects of pyrolysis process parameters, including catalysts, pyrolysis conditions, reactor types and reaction modes on bio-oil production are also presented. Techno-economic analysis of full-scale commercialization of bio-oil production through the catalytic pyrolysis pathway was reviewed. Further, limitations associated with current practices and future prospects of catalytic pyrolysis for production of high-quality bio-oils were summarized. This review summarizes the process of bio-oil production from catalytic pyrolysis and provides a general scientific reference for further studies.

Elucidating the synergistic interaction and reaction pathway between the individual lignocellulosic components during flash pyrolysis

• Homogeneous volatile-volatile interaction is overwhelming in flash pyrolysis. • Oxygen-bearing radicals induced volatile reactions between aliphatics and aromatics. • Lignin char is the most catalytically active for secondary reactions of volatiles. • Cellulose char is the most active in trapping heavy molecules derived from lignin. • The interaction between cellulose/xylan and lignin promotes the overall conversion. In this study, systematic experiments have been conducted to elucidate the synergistic interaction during the flash pyrolysis of lignocellulosic biomass. Through the use of Pyroprobe coupled with GC-FID and TCD, and the testing of individual components, their derivatives, model compounds and blends, the interaction of biomass components was confirmed to be affected by both heterogeneous char-volatile and homogeneous volatile-volatile interactions. The latter interaction was overwhelming in contributing to an enhanced bio-oil yield by the transferring of oxygen-bearing radicals from cellulose/xylan-bound hydroxyl to the volatiles such as p-cresol from lignin, and vice versa, by an induction effect of the lignin-derived volatiles on the release/transformation of cellulose/xylan volatiles. Alternatively, the heterogeneous char-volatile interaction was crucial in improving the non-condensable gas yield. The lignin char was the most catalytically active for the deoxygenation of volatiles, followed sequentially by xylan char, and cellulose char which was the most active in trapping the heavy molecules derived from lignin. The synergy of cellulose/xylan and lignin also promoted the overall conversion to complete more quickly.

Valorization of a Pyrolytic Aqueous Condensate and Its Main Components for L-Malic Acid Production with Aspergillus oryzae DSM 1863

Pyrolytic aqueous condensate (PAC) might serve as a cost-effective substrate for microbial malic acid production, as it is an unused side stream of the fast pyrolysis of lignocellulosic biomass that contains acetol and acetate as potential carbon sources. In the present study, shake flask cultures were performed to evaluate the suitability of acetol and its combination with acetate as substrates for growth and L-malate production with the filamentous fungus Aspergillus oryzae. Acetol concentrations of up to 40 g/L were shown to be utilized for fungal growth. In combination with acetate, co-metabolization of both substrates for biomass and malate formation was observed, although the maximum tolerated acetol concentration decreased to 20 g/L. Furthermore, malate production on PAC detoxified by a combination of rotary evaporation, overliming and activated carbon treatment was studied. In shake flasks, cultivation using 100% PAC resulted in the production of 3.37 ± 0.61 g/L malate, which was considerably improved by pH adjustment up to 9.77 ± 0.55 g/L. A successful scale-up to 0.5-L bioreactors was conducted, achieving comparable yields and productivities to the shake flask cultures. Accordingly, fungal malate production using PAC was successfully demonstrated, paving the way for a bio-based production of the acid.

Investigation into the Pyrolysis Bond Dissociation Enthalpies (BDEs) of a Model Lignin Oligomer Using Density Functional Theory (DFT)

Pyrolysis is a promising technology for converting lignocellulosic biomass into chemicals, materials, and fuels. Understanding the fundamental reactions and mechanisms during the fast pyrolysis of lignocellulosic biomass is essential for improving the efficiency of this technology. Investigations of lignin fast pyrolysis reactions and mechanisms have thus far lagged relative to cellulose and hemicellulose and have largely been focused on lignin model dimers and monomers. These studies provide valuable information about the reaction tendencies of individual linkages; however, the complex and varying nature of lignin interunit linkages does not allow direct extrapolation to larger lignin structures. In this study, we computationally investigate homolytic bond scission reactions of a larger, synthesizable model lignin oligomer, containing three major lignin linkages, using density functional theory. The bond dissociation enthalpies of the model oligomer showed the trend for the four lowest BDEs Cα–O (β-5) < Cα–Cβ (β-5) < Cα–O (α-O-4) < Cβ–O (β-O-4). Our results show that the general trends identified in smaller dimer molecules are maintained while the magnitude of the BDEs is increased in the model oligomer. This work is an important first step in developing a library of reaction information for various lignin substructures.

The role of biochar in the degradation of sugars during fast pyrolysis of biomass

With appropriate pretreament, sugars can be a major product from fast pyrolysis of lignocellulosic biomass. Analytical pyrolysis of pure cellulose can produce up to 60 wt% yield of levoglucosan although yields are significantly lower in continuouos pyrolysis at larger scales. Secondary reactions of vaporized levoglucosan are thought to be responsible for this loss of sugar yield, suggesting changes in the design and operation of pyrolysis reactors to minimize these reactions. Micropyrolysis experiments were performed to better understand the mechanism of sugar degradation in the presence of biochar. A 57% loss in levoglucosan yield was observed for cellulose overlain with untreated biochar powder compared to the pure cellulose control sample. The addition of biochar derived from pyrolysis of untreated corn stover to a fluidized bed pyrolyzer reduced sugar yields from cellulose from 61.3 wt% to 21.3 wt% and 41.5–11.6 wt% for conventional and autothermal operation, respectively. The significant drop in sugar yield due to biochar interaction inspired change in feeder configuration for the fluidized bed pyrolyzer to reduce vapor-char interactions. Biomass feeding was changed from in-bed to above-bed injection, which allowed signficant devolatilization to occur above the layer of biochar that exists at the surface of the bed. By reducing secondary reactions, bio-oil and sugar yields increased by 7.9% and 14%, respectively, for autothermal pyrolysis.

Isolation and Characterization of Levoglucosan-Metabolizing Bacteria.

Bacteria were isolated from wastewater and soil containing charred wood remnants based on their ability to use levoglucosan as a sole carbon source and on their levoglucosan dehydrogenase (LGDH) activity. On the basis of their 16S rRNA gene sequences, these bacteria represented the diverse genera Microbacterium, Paenibacillus, Shinella, and Klebsiella. Genomic sequencing of the isolates verified that two isolates represented novel species, Paenibacillus athensensis MEC069T and Shinella sumterensis MEC087T, while the remaining isolates were closely related to Microbacterium lacusdiani or Klebsiella pneumoniae. The genetic sequence of LGDH, lgdA, was found in the genomes of these four isolates as well as Pseudarthrobacter phenanthrenivorans Sphe3. The identity of the P. phenanthrenivorans LGDH was experimentally verified following recombinant expression in Escherichia coli. Comparison of the putative genes surrounding lgdA in the isolate genomes indicated that several other gene products facilitate the bacterial catabolism of levoglucosan, including a putative sugar isomerase and several transport proteins. IMPORTANCE Levoglucosan is the most prevalent soluble carbohydrate remaining after high-temperature pyrolysis of lignocellulosic biomass, but it is not fermented by typical production microbes such as Escherichia coli and Saccharomyces cerevisiae. A few fungi metabolize levoglucosan via the enzyme levoglucosan kinase, while several bacteria metabolize levoglucosan via levoglucosan dehydrogenase. This study describes the isolation and characterization of four bacterial species that degrade levoglucosan. Each isolate is shown to contain several genes within an operon involved in levoglucosan degradation, furthering our understanding of bacteria that metabolize levoglucosan.

Pyrolysis of lignocellulosic biomass with high-density polyethylene to produce chemicals and bio-oil with high liquid yields

The pyrolysis of waste plastic and lignocellulosic material feedstocks increases the hydrogen/carbon ratio of the plastic-biomass mixture and may be advantageous for refining the properties of pyrolysis oil, which can be directly used as a fuel without any need for upgrading by catalytic hydrodeoxygenation. In this paper, high-density polyethylene (HDPE) and brown salwood were tested in a custom-built laboratory-scale fixed-bed reactor to investigate the co-pyrolysis reaction at temperatures ranging from 500 to 650 °C, nitrogen flow rates ranging from 40 to 160 mL min−1, and HDPE-to-biomass ratios ranging from 0.1 to 0.9. The results revealed that the temperature mostly influenced the pyrolysis products, whereas increasing the temperature to 600 °C promoted pyrolysis oil production, reaching a yield of 35.10 ± 1.20 wt%. Further increasing the reaction temperature to 650 °C decreased the yield to 34.57 ± 0.49 wt% because secondary cracking reactions produce a noncondensable gas rich in hydrocarbons. Physicochemical analysis of the pyrolyzed organic phase revealed a gross calorific heating value of up to approximately 38.19 MJ kg−1. Additionally, co-pyrolysis of HDPE improved the production of furans, and acid derivatives were obtained in the aqueous fraction via the thermal conversion of hemicellulose and lignin; conversely, the obtained char exhibited a notably low surface area and few superficial micropores and was used to further develop activated carbon for use as a catalyst in the catalytic pyrolysis of waste materials.

Enhancing the Synergistic Effect of Cellulose and Polypropylene for Petrochemical Production during Catalytic Fast Pyrolysis by Mesoporous Gallium-MFI Zeolites

Co-feeding plastic waste has been considered to be an attractive method to enhance aromatic production and mitigate coke formation during catalytic fast pyrolysis (CFP) of lignocellulosic biomass with zeolite catalysts. However, insignificant synergistic effects for aromatic production have been observed for the cofeed CFP of cellulose and polypropylene (PP) during CFP with the conventional ZSM-5 zeolites. In this study, a series of mesoporous ZSM-5 and gallium (Ga)-containing MFI zeolites were prepared by desilication of conventional ZSM-5 zeolite with alkaline treatment (DS-ZSM-5) and hydrothermal synthesis of galloaluminosilicate with or without post-alkaline treatment (GaMFI and DS-GaMFI). These zeolites were then tested for the cofeed CFP of cellulose and PP mixture. The results indicate that the generation of mesopores in microporous MFI zeolite by alkaline treatment can alleviate the steric hindrance effect of PP-derived branched olefins on their catalytic conversion, while the incorporation of Ga can considerably increase the dehydrogenation activity of the zeolites, thus enhancing the transformation of alkanes and olefins to aromatics. Therefore, these zeolites considerably enhanced the synergistic effect of cellulose and PP for aromatic production during the cofeed CFP, compared to the conventional ZSM-5 zeolite. The aromatic yield increased markedly from 32.9 C% for ZSM-5 to 40.9 C%, 47.9 C%, and 52.7 C% for the DS-ZSM-5, GaMFI, and DS-GaMFI zeolites, respectively. Meanwhile, the formation of undesired coke was moderately mitigated during cofeed CFP with the DS-ZSM-5 and DS-GaMFI zeolites. The results of this study demonstrate that the DS-GaMFI zeolite can provide an effective catalyst to enhance aromatic production in the cofeed CFP of lignocellulosic biomass and plastics.

Research of the two-step pyrolysis of lignocellulosic biomass based on the cross-coupling of components by Py-GC/MS

Research of the two-step pyrolysis of lignocellulosic biomass based on the cross-coupling of components by Py-GC/MS

Catalytic co‐pyrolysis of macroalgal components with lignocellulosic biomass for enhanced biofuels and high‐valued chemicals

This study focuses on catalytic co-pyrolysis of a lignocellulosic biomass (rice husk) and main components of the seaweed Enteromorpha clathrata (ie, protein, polysaccharide, and ash) using TGA and Py-GC/MS analytical techniques with the aim and novelty to unveil their catalytic co-pyrolysis thermal behaviors and synergistic effect of interactions between their catalytic co-pyrolysis volatiles for enhanced biofuels and high-valued chemicals production. Thus, in this study, rice husk was treated with macroalgal major components over ZSM-5, MCM-41, and blend of both catalysts using the Py-GC/MS analytical technique to improve the quality of rice husk bio-oil. Thermogravimetric analysis studies of pyrolysis, co-pyrolysis, and catalytic co-pyrolysis of lignocellulosic biomass with seaweed main components were also performed. Effects of HZSM-5, MCM-41, and blend of both catalysts on catalytic co-pyrolysis products distributions were also studied and compared. Results revealed that the quality and chemical compositions of rice husk bio-oil were significantly improved owing to the synergistic effect of interactions between volatiles of rice husk and seaweed main components during catalytic co-pyrolysis. Also, catalytic co-pyrolysis of macroalgal components and lignocellulosic biomass with ZSM-5, MCM-41, and blends of both catalysts were found to considerably reduce the oxygenated compounds, and greatly improved selectivity of monocyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the bio-oil. However, MCM-41 offered a stronger positive upgrading effect than ZSM-5 catalyst. This could be attributed to its greater ability in raising the selectivity of aromatic hydrocarbons and reduction of activation energies of the degradation reactions. It was also observed that blends of both catalysts offered a higher upgrading effect than ZSM-5 and MCM-41 catalysts alone. Novelty Statement Catalytic c-pyrolysis of macroalgal components and lignocellulosic biomass with ZSM-5, MCM-41, and blends of these catalysts greatly improved selectivity of monocyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the bio-oil. MCM-41 offered a stronger positive upgrading effect than ZSM-5 in raising the selectivity of aromatic hydrocarbons and reduction of activation energies. Blends of both catalysts offered a higher upgrading effect than ZSM-5 and MCM-41 catalysts alone. Highlights Catalytic co-pyrolysis of lignocellulosic biomass with major macroalgal components was performed. Synergistic effect of catalytic co-pyrolysis of lignocellulosic biomass & macroalgal components were unveiled. Effect of HZSM-5 & MCM-41 catalysts on product distributions were studied & compared. Thermal behaviors and mass loss characteristics of degradation processes were unveiled.

Characterization of Heavy Products from Lignocellulosic Biomass Pyrolysis by Chromatography and Fourier Transform Mass Spectrometry: A Review

Bio-oils obtained from lignocellulosic biomass pyrolysis are promising energetic resources. However, their high oxygen content is responsible for storage and corrosion issues and does not allow the...

Detailed characterization of sulfur compounds in fast pyrolysis bio-oils using GC × GC-SCD and GC–MS

Only trace amounts of sulfur (tens to thousands of ppm) are present in bio-oils produced from fast pyrolysis of lignocellulosic biomass. However, even such small amounts of sulfur-containing compounds can act as catalytic poisons during bio-oil upgrading. To improve the knowledge of sulfur speciation in bio-oils for process design and development, e.g. by hydrotreatment, comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography (GC ×GC) coupled with selective sulfur chemiluminescence detector (SCD) and headspace gas chromatography coupled to a quadrupole mass spectrometry (GC–MS) were combined. This allowed to quantify sulfur-containing compounds present in crude bio-oils produced from different types of biomass (beech wood, miscanthus, and straw) and straw bio-oil after hydrotreatment. Hydrogen sulfide, methanethiol, dimethyl disulfide, and several thiophenes were identified and quantified as the most abundant sulfur compounds. The detailed analysis of the hydrotreated bio-oil prepared at 360 °C and 8 MPa showed that most GC-detectable sulfur was related to hydrogen sulfide not sufficiently removed in the product separator. Used analytical methods brought an unprecedented level of details about bio-oil sulfur speciation and acquired data can help to drive further R&D in bio-oil upgrading.

Production and separation of acetic acid from pyrolysis oil of lignocellulosic biomass: a review

AbstractBio‐oil from lignocellulosic biomass pyrolysis is a promising feedstock as a precursor for the production of transportation fuels and value‐added chemicals. The presence of significant concentrations of oxygen, water, and acids makes it difficult to use bio‐oil directly as a transportation fuel without costly upgrading. The acidity of pyrolysis liquids is mainly derived from volatile acids, such as acetic acid, causing chemical instability and corrosion. The extraction of acids from bio‐oil can therefore offer strategies for improved applications and economic value. Moreover, acetic acid is a valuable reagent and the building block for several commercially important chemicals. This review presents the results of important research related to the production of bio‐oil‐derived acetic acid. The discussion is intended to summarize the effect of biomass type and pretreatment method, pyrolysis processing conditions, and separation techniques on acetic acid production via pyrolysis. On this basis, acetic acid characterization techniques are also presented along with an overview of acetic acid applications and economic considerations. © 2021 Society of Chemical Industry and John Wiley &amp; Sons, Ltd

Prediction of char production from slow pyrolysis of lignocellulosic biomass using multiple nonlinear regression and artificial neural network

Char produced from lignocellulosic biomass via slow pyrolysis have become one of the most feasible alternatives that can partially replace the utilisation of fossil fuels for energy production. In this study, the relationship between compositions of lignocellulosic biomass, operating conditions of slow pyrolysis, and characteristics of produced char have been analysed by using multiple nonlinear regression (MnLR) and artificial neural networks (ANN). Six input variables (temperature, solid residence time, production capacity, particle size, and fixed carbon and ash content) and five responses (char yield, and fixed carbon, volatile matter, ash content, HHV of produced char) were selected. A total of 57 literature references with 393–422 datasets were used to determine the correlation and coefficient of determination (R2) between the input variables and responses. High correlation results (>0.5) existed between pyrolysis temperature and char yield (-0.502) and volatile matter of produced char (-0.619), ash content of feedstock and fixed carbon (-0.685), ash content (0.871) and HHV (-0.571) of produced char. Whilst the quadratic model was selected for the regression model, then the model was further optimised by eliminating any terms with p-values greater than 0.05. The optimised MnLR model results showed a reasonable prediction ability of char yield (R2 = 0.5579), fixed carbon (R2 = 0.7763), volatile matter (R2 = 0.5709), ash (R2 = 0.8613), and HHV (R2 = 0.5728). ANN model optimisation was carried out as the results showed “trainbr” training algorithm, 10 neurons in the hidden layer, and “tansig” and “purelin” transfer function in hidden and output layers, respectively. The optimised ANN models had higher accuracy than MnLR models with the R2 greater than 0.75, including 0.785 for char yield, 0.855 for fixed carbon, 0.752 for volatile matter, 0.951 for ash and 0.784 for HHV, respectively. The trained models can be used to predict and optimise the char production from slow pyrolysis of biomass without expensive experiments.

Lignocellulosic biomass-based pyrolysis: A comprehensive review

The efficacious application of lignocellulosic biomass for the new valuable chemicals generation curbs the excessive dependency on fossil fuels. Among the various techniques available, pyrolysis has garnered much attention for conversion of lignocellulosic biomass (encompasses cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin components) into product of solid, liquid and gases by thermal decomposition in an efficient manner. Pyrolysis conversion mechanism can be outlined as formation of char, depolymerisation, fragmentation and other secondary reactions. This paper gives a deep insight about the pyrolytic behavior of the lignocellulosic components accompanied by its by-products. Also several parameters such as reaction environment, temperature, residence time and heating rate which has a great impact on the pyrolysis process are also elucidated in a detailed manner. In addition the environmental and economical facet of lignocellulosic biomass pyrolysis for commercialization at industrial scale is critically analyzed. This article also illustrates the prevailing challenges and inhibition in implementing lignocellulosic biomass based pyrolysis with possible solution.

Comparative study on the one‐step and two‐step pyrolysis of lignocellulosic biomass: Effects of two‐step pyrolysis on improving product quality

Two-step pyrolysis (TSP) and one-step pyrolysis (OSP) of rice husk was conducted using a fixed-bed reactor, and the product distribution and physicochemical property were analyzed. TSP had two fast pyrolysis processes, which were, respectively, set at lower temperature (400°C) in the first step and high temperature (550°C) in the second step, while OSP was only set at high temperature (550°C). Compared with OSP, TSP increased the total yields of char and gas but decreased the total yield of bio-oil. The pyrolysis process of the first step facilitated the cross-linking and polycondensation reactions in the char of the first step, thus inhibiting the decomposition of the char from the first step and decreasing the yield of bio-oil in the second step. Due to the high pyrolysis temperature, there was no significant difference between the char from the second step and the char from OSP. The first step improved the selectivity of acids, furans and phenols with complex side chains in bio-oil. The bio-oil from the second step had lower acidity, and higher selectivity of phenols and hydrocarbons. Compared with the gas product of OSP, the H2 and CH4 contents of the gas product from the second step were improved by more than 70% and 35%. TSP could not only improve the selectivity of value-added chemicals but also achieve the higher quality of gas and bio-oil as fuel.

Techno‐economic analysis of novolac resin production by partial substitution of petroleum‐derived phenol with bio‐oil phenol

AbstractNovolac resins are produced by reacting phenol and formaldehyde, which are both conventionally obtained from petroleum refining. However, phenolic compounds present in bio‐oil obtained via fast pyrolysis of lignocellulosic biomass can be used to partially substitute petroleum‐derived phenol. Thus, the objective of this study was to analyze the techno‐economic feasibility of producing novolac resin by partially substituting petroleum‐derived phenol with biomass‐based phenol in the U.S. The analysis was done at two different annual novolac resin production capacities of 25, 000 and 100, 000 t, respectively, representing the existing small‐ and large‐scale resin production facilities in the U.S. Mass balance and energy analyses of the system were performed to estimate resources (equipment, raw materials, consumables, utilities, and labor) requirements, capital and operating costs, and the financial parameters, including the minimum selling price (MSP). The MSPs for biomass‐based novolac resin for 25, 000 and 100, 000 t capacities were estimated to be $1,585 t–1 and $1,250/t–1, respectively, which falls below its current market price range ($1,700‐3,200 t–1). The bio‐oil to phenol substitution ratio, phenol content in bio‐oil, phenol cost, plant size, biomass feedstock cost, and resin synthesis residence time were the most sensitive parameters affecting the production cost and MSP of novolac resin. The production of biobased novolac resin has the potential to be economically feasible at the current state of technology, and could be an important outlet for diversifying the use of bio‐oil. © 2021 Society of Chemical Industry and John Wiley &amp; Sons, Ltd