Carbon flow modeling for the global assessment of bio-based and biodegradable plastic packaging: end-of-life destinations, climate impact, and residual plastic in the environment.

The hidden environmental footprint of fashion’s smallest parts

Life cycle greenhouse gas emissions of electricity generated from waste coal in the United States

Assessment of the life cycle of photovoltaic solar technologies for sustainable energy transitions: Implications for climate policy and low-carbon system integration

• Multi energy system (MES) including a CO 2 district heating–cooling network (DHCN). • Joint design optimization of MES and CO 2 network for cost and emission reduction. • User connections to CO 2 network are chosen only when system benefits arise. • Cooling comfort flexibility enables sustainable free cooling strategies. • Full DHCN connection reduces emissions by up to 48.8% compared to isolated users. This paper presents an original procedure for the integrated optimization of the topology, design and operation of a CO 2 District Heating and Cooling Network and associated Multi-Energy System. The goal is to understand the potential of CO 2 networks to reduce the life-cycle cost and greenhouse gas emissions of the system, by determining, in one step, both the optimal size of the energy conversion and storage units, and the optimal layout and size of the network branches. The procedure (i) uses a multi-nodal approach for an adaptive selection of the users to be connected to the network, (ii) includes the CO 2 temperature optimization to minimize energy consumption of the network, and (iii) allows different users’ comfort options. The optimization model, based on the DOMES method, is tested on an urban district with 18 nodes, considering different energy conversion and storage technologies, thermal networks and demand profiles. Results show that properly adapting the users’ connection to the CO 2 network may reduce emissions by 26.6 ÷ 52.8% compared to the case without thermal network, while the impact on total costs is strongly influenced by the users’ thermal demand profiles and cooling comfort needs, ranging from a 7.0% reduction to a 23.1% increase.

Motorcycles are a significant mode of transportation worldwide, serving both as leisure and luxury goods in industrialized countries and as affordable everyday mobility solutions in many emerging and developing regions. In the context of a more sustainable transport future, all three dimensions of sustainability, namely environmental, economic, and social must be considered. This study employs a systematic literature review (SLR) following established review protocols, screening five major scientific databases for peer reviewed studies published between 2010 and 2025 to critically analyze existing research on the sustainability assessment of motorcycles using Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), Social Life Cycle Assessment (S-LCA), and Life Cycle Costing (LCC), with a focus on social aspects. Findings reveal that environmental LCA dominates existing research, with 30 of the 33 SLR studies evaluating environmental impacts, primarily comparing internal combustion engine motorcycles with electric two wheelers. Findings show lower lifecycle greenhouse gas emissions for electric motorcycles, though battery production and electricity mix significantly influence overall results. While environmental LCAs and LCCs primarily address vehicle use and environmental impacts and costs, no dedicated full S-LCA of motorcycles as a product system was identified. Additional non-LCA social studies highlight road safety, noise, and local socioeconomic impacts as prominent social issues. The industry review shows that while some manufacturers use life cycle methodologies for carbon accounting, only two companies publicly report motorcycle LCAs, and none disclose S-LCA results. The findings reveal a significant methodological imbalance: environmental dimensions of motorcycle sustainability are increasingly studied, whereas social aspects are underexplored and treated in a fragmented context specific manner, and rarely assessed across the full life cycle. This gap is especially critical considering the globalized, resource intensive supply chains of motorcycle production and the socio-economic importance of motorcycles in low and middle income countries. The rise of electric motorcycles further amplifies the need for integrated LCSA approaches that consider human rights, working conditions in battery supply chains, and user safety. Future research, such as next steps of this research project (doctoral thesis), should focus on developing standardized social indicators for motorcycles, collecting supply chain data, and aligning sustainability communication with robust LCSA frameworks.

Abstract Life cycle assessment (LCA) is a well-recognized tool to assess the environmental impact of food production. To assess partial life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions in agricultural systems with variable weather and management, this study integrated process-based agricultural systems modelling (APSIM) with emission-factor-based calculations to develop a system modelling framework. We assessed the greenhouse gas emission intensity of 11 fields from 2016 to 2021 at Boorowa Agricultural Research Station, representing an Australian cropping farm with comprehensive management records. Net greenhouse gas emissions varied widely across fields and seasons, ranging from −3.87 to 6.10 t CO 2 −e ha⁻ 1 . Emissions were not only determined by seasonal climate but also prior-year management decisions, highlighting the need for a system-level perspective. Compared to the LCA-APSIM approach, averaged emission factors tend to overestimate direct N 2 O emission and fail to capture field-scale variability driven by climate and management. This highlights the limitations of the emission factor-based approach. Long-term scenario simulations for a continuous cropping system (canola-wheat-wheat) and a phased pasture-crop system (lucerne (×3)-canola-wheat-wheat, with lucerne ungrazed and 50% cut for hay) clearly demonstrated the trade-off between greenhouse gas emissions and nitrogen input. From a long-term perspective, regardless of management practices or cropping systems, soil organic carbon in agricultural systems will eventually reach equilibrium, after which the system will transition from a carbon sink to a carbon source. To optimize environmental sustainability and food security, advanced farm management strategies must delay the attainment of equilibrium and maximize soil carbon storage potential while maintaining productivity. This study provides new insights into field-scale variability in greenhouse gas emissions, soil organic carbon equilibrium timing, and biases in static N₂O emission methods that have not been quantified in earlier LCA–APSIM applications.

The development of bioenergy crops on saline–alkaline land has been recognized as a potential pathway for both land restoration and combating global warming. However, the role of soil organic carbon (SOC) dynamics under such conditions remains insufficiently quantified in long-term assessments. In this study, an exploratory assessment was conducted to evaluate the long-term soil carbon sequestration (SCS) potential and life-cycle greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of sustainable aviation fuel (SAF) produced from Arundo donax in the Bohai Rim region of China. The CENTURY model was integrated with Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) time series forecasting to simulate SOC dynamics under future climate scenarios (2024–2035). Compared with the original CENTURY simulation, the LSTM model yielded a substantially more conservative estimate of SOC accumulation, with an Ensemble Mean SCS rate of 0.032 t C/ha/a and a 95% confidence interval ranging from −0.079 to 0.143 t C/ha/a. This result indicates a positive regional average tendency toward soil carbon sequestration, while also suggesting that some locations may behave as carbon sources under less favorable climatic conditions. The total SCS potential across the study area was estimated at 0.615 Tg C. When these soil carbon benefits were incorporated into the life-cycle assessment of Fischer–Tropsch (F-T) SAF, the pathway could become potentially net-negative under the adopted assumptions, reaching −32.1 g CO2e/MJ, which corresponds to a potential reduction of 136.1% relative to fossil aviation fuel. These results should be interpreted as exploratory and scenario-based, given that large-scale cultivation of Arundo donax has not yet been established in the Bohai Rim region and the assessment therefore relies on assumptions. Beyond GHG mitigation, the cultivation of Arundo donax on degraded saline–alkaline soils may also have potential relevance to broader sustainability objectives, including SDG 13 (Climate Action) and SDG 15 (Life on Land). These findings highlight the possible synergies among energy crop cultivation, soil restoration, and climate neutrality goals, and provide preliminary insights for integrating marginal land utilization into sustainable land management and low-carbon aviation strategies.

The decarbonization of hard-to-abate sectors remains a significant challenge in achieving net-zero emissions targets. These industries depend on energy-dense fuels, making direct electrification and the direct use of hydrogen technically and economically challenging. Electrofuels present a promising pathway to reducing emissions while leveraging surplus renewable energy. This review evaluates the feasibility of electrofuels for deep decarbonization, focusing on production processes, energy demands, and economic viability. Environmental performance is discussed in terms of lifecycle greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, carbon circularity considerations, and energy conversion efficiencies, while techno-economic feasibility is evaluated using metrics such as levelized cost of hydrogen (LCOH), CO2 capture costs, and projected fuel production costs. The review indicates that while electrofuels can achieve substantial lifecycle emission reductions up to 40–90%, depending on pathway and electricity source, their deployment remains constrained by high energy demand, conversion losses, and capital costs. Projected reductions in LCOH to below $2.1/kg by 2030 and declining renewable electricity costs could significantly improve competitiveness, particularly in regions with abundant solar and wind resources. However, substantial trade-offs exist between efficiency, infrastructure compatibility, scalability, and carbon neutrality across different electrofuel routes. The review identifies key technological bottlenecks, cost drivers, and research priorities necessary to position electrofuels as a strategic solution for deep decarbonization in sectors where direct electrification is not feasible.

Most life-cycle assessments (LCAs) of alternative fuels evaluate electricity and hydrogen inputs using static or scenario-based carbon intensity assumptions. This study quantifies the impact of electricity and hydrogen on the life-cycle greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of sustainable aviation fuels (SAFs). By coupling emission intensity projections for electricity grids and hydrogen production with Argonne National Laboratory's R&D GREET model, and following the life-cycle assessment (LCA) method of the International Civil Aviation Organization, we estimate life-cycle GHG emissions effects for two SAF pathways with comparatively high technology readiness levels: hydroprocessed esters and fatty acids (HEFA) from waste fats (tallow) and alcohol-to-jet (ATJ) from corn grain ethanol. Under the assumed trajectories for electricity grid decarbonization and hydrogen production carbon intensities, life-cycle GHG emissions of tallow HEFA and corn grain ATJ are estimated to be 7.7-12.5 e/MJfuel lower in 2035 and 9.6-13.7 e/MJfuel lower in 2050 relative to 2022 values. Additional facility-level mitigation measures, including carbon capture and waste heat utilization, could further reduce emissions per unit SAF. The work provides a prospective assessment by replacing static pathway intensities with a prospective LCA that couples SAF pathways to time-evolving electricity/hydrogen CIs and facility-level mitigation, quantifying dynamic GHG reductions to 2050. These findings underscore the importance of incorporating prospective energy system changes into SAF LCAs to more accurately capture future mitigation potential and inform effective aviation climate strategies.

ABSTRACT The global food system accounts for roughly 25%–30% of total greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Without emission estimates, it is difficult to identify major sources of emissions as well as monitor the progress towards climate goals such as the Paris Agreement, net‐zero emissions and Carbon Credit. The rapidly evolving food system of India is contributing significantly to national GHG emissions; nevertheless, a comprehensive understanding of emissions across the food life cycle is still limited. Present study was undertaken to analyse state‐wise GHG emissions from on‐farm and off‐farm activities as well as various stages of agri‐food life cycle. For this, data pertaining to consumption of 12 major food groups (combination of 405 food items) across 30 states of India was extracted from NSSO report 2022–23, and different methodologies were used for getting GHG emissions at each stage of agri‐food life cycle. Findings indicated that production of livestock products, though less consumed than cereals, has disproportionately higher GHG intensities (89.81%) than crops (10.19%) due to enteric fermentation and feed production. Life cycle assessment (LCA) indicated that among all food crops, production of rice contributed to 2.26% followed by oilseeds (2.20%) and least by wheat (0.55%) towards GHG emission. Emission from other stages like transport of rice was highest (24%) followed by fruits (19%) and meat (10%), respectively. Regional disparities in dietary patterns and agricultural practices further influenced the emission profiles. Considering the production scenario, the top four GHG emitters (from production scenario) were Haryana (2079.44) > Telangana (1934.49) > Andhra Pradesh (1873.37) > Punjab (1844.72 kg CO 2 e/capita/year). In case of consumption the trend was Nagaland (1387.38 kg CO2e/capita/year) > Sikkim (1304.09 kg CO2/capita/year) > Ladakh (1085.11 kg CO2e/capita/year) > Arunachal Pradesh (1055.36 kg CO 2 e/capita/year) due to high per capita consumption of meat and rice. GHG emissions resulting from inter‐state transport to the union territories ranged between 0.886 and 1.734 kg CO 2 e/kg of product, highlighting their substantial dependence on external food sources. This study focused on the potential of dietary shifts, improved agricultural practices and reduced food waste as key mitigation strategies. These insights will provide critical direction for low‐carbon food system transitions in developing economies.

Life cycle greenhouse gas (GHG) accounting is increasingly required to substantiate the climate value of wind power beyond “zero-emission” operation, especially under China’s dual-carbon targets. Robust estimation of life cycle GHG emission intensity and the identification of actionable mitigation levers are therefore important for credible transition planning. In this study, a process-based life cycle assessment (LCA) was conducted for a representative 100 MW onshore wind farm in Gaoyou, Jiangsu Province, China, following ISO 14040/14044. To enhance engineering relevance, the construction and installation phase was modeled in a refined manner by decomposing it into road, wind-turbine, booster-station, and transmission-line engineering and further into unit processes. The results show that the overall life cycle GHG emission intensity of the studied wind farm is 24.6 g CO2-eq/kWh. Scenario analysis further indicates that reducing curtailment and improving end-of-life recycling are effective pathways to lower emission intensity, while the net advantage of hybrid versus steel towers depends on recycling performance when end-of-life credits are included. The study also summarizes practical implications for low-carbon equipment/material procurement and green supply-chain governance, low-carbon construction and logistics, coordinated “source–grid–load–storage” planning to curb curtailment, and more standardized and comparable life cycle carbon accounting for wind projects in China.

Renewable Energy Communities (RECs) are recognized as effective collective models to accelerate decarbonization through shared renewable generation, consumption, and local flexibility provision. However, their large-scale deployment remains constrained by the temporal mismatch between variable renewable generation and strongly time-dependent demand, particularly in buildings where heating and cooling dominate final energy use. This state-of-the-art review provides an integrated and comparative assessment of Thermal Energy Storage (TES) and Battery Energy Storage Systems (BESS) within RECs, with explicit focus on power-to-heat (PtH) pathways and phase change material (PCM)-based cooling storage. Based on a structured analysis of the peer-reviewed literature published between 2015 and 2025, the review shows that TES represents a cost-effective and durable complement to electrochemical storage in heating- and cooling-dominated communities. Reported results indicate that TES integration can reduce peak electrical demand by 20–35%, increase local renewable self-consumption by 15–40%, and significantly lower required battery capacity in hybrid configurations. While BESS remains indispensable for short-term electrical balancing and fast-response grid services, TES offers lower costs per kWh stored, longer operational lifetimes (often exceeding 25–40 years), and lower lifecycle greenhouse gas emissions, typically 70–85% lower than those of BESS when thermal energy is used directly. Among TES technologies, PCM-based systems demonstrate particular effectiveness in cooling-dominated RECs, enabling peak cooling power reductions of up to 30% through diurnal load shifting. Across climatic contexts, the literature converges on hybrid TES–BESS architectures as the most robust storage solution, with reported reductions in grid imports and renewable curtailment of up to 35–40%. In addition, TES uniquely enables seasonal energy shifting, for which no cost-competitive electrochemical alternative currently exists. Despite these advantages, the review identifies persistent gaps related to the limited availability of long-term operational data and the need for empirical validation of hybrid control strategies. Future research should prioritize multi-year field demonstrations, advanced data-driven energy management, and policy frameworks that explicitly recognize thermal flexibility and sector coupling within Renewable Energy Communities.

Photovoltaic (PV) technology is the core pathway foraddressingglobal climate change and advancing energy system decarbonization,yet the rapid expansion of PV manufacturing capacity has triggereda surge in life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions, sparking mountingconcerns. We integrated multisource heterogeneous data from China’sPV industry (2005–2024) to develop a life-cycle accountingframework, which quantifies industrial carbon emissions and theirevolutionary patterns across production stages and multiscale spatiotemporaldimensions. We also deconstructed the emission impacts of scale, technology,and structural factors, and predicted future trends. Over two decades,China’s PV industry-wide carbon emissions soared from 0.24to 205 million tonnes, while product-level emission intensity plummetedfrom 1,300 to 380 kg CO2eq/kWp. The contribution of technologicalprogress to emission reduction rose from about 3% of the observedincrease in emissions in 2005–2007 to nearly 100% in 2020–2024.Spatially, raw material and monocrystalline cell production have shiftedinland for cost advantages, while module assembly remains concentratedin coastal hubs like the Yangtze River Delta. Capacity utilization,grid decarbonization, and technical learning will dictate future emissions.Against surging global PV demand, coordinated capacity planning, acceleratedtech progress, optimized spatial distribution, and established incentivepolicies are pivotal to steering China’s PV manufacturing ontoa sustainable low-carbon path.

Pragmatic assessment of meeting the 2030 U.S. sustainable aviation fuel goal

Explaining global variation in life-cycle greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from soybeans and soybean meal: a systematic review

Cost-effective decarbonization of urban wastewater sector in eastern Chinese cities toward 2035: Integration of low-carbon treatment and energy reduction technologies.

A critical meta-survey of the lifecycle greenhouse gas emissions of hydrogen energy systems

Understanding greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from natural gas systems is essential for transitioning to a low-carbon economy. This work estimates well-through-transmission GHG emissions of the US natural gas from one million wells covering 91% production in 2023. A high-resolution US oil and gas production area map is developed to harmonize spatial and tabular data from the oil and natural gas (O&NG) supply chain. We systematically integrate latest aerial campaign measurement into natural gas life cycle GHG emission estimates, capturing methane fugitives with better characterization of superemitter events. More than ten public and commercial data sets are integrated with an engineering-based unit process life cycle assessment (LCA) model. The estimated total GHG emissions from the US gas sector are 719 MMT CO2eq, more than twice the estimates of the US Environmental Protection Agency. The average well-through-transmission carbon intensity (CI) for US natural gas is 15.99 [15.14, 16.90] gCO2eq/MJ, with an upstream (exploration through processing) CI of 12.27 [11.84, 12.68] gCO2eq/MJ and a midstream (transmission) CI of 3.72 [3.30, 4.22] gCO2eq/MJ (bracketed values indicate uncertainty ranges). Methane fugitive and venting account for 61% and 21% of the upstream CI, an order of magnitude higher than flaring contributions (2.1%). Reducing methane fugitive and venting loss rates by 75% would reduce the upstream CI by half.

The accelerating growth of electric vehicles (EVs) highlights the urgent need for sustainable and resilient charging infrastructure. Photovoltaic (PV)-powered charging stations offer a promising decarbonization pathway; however, most prior reviews remain fragmented across technical or regional scopes. This study systematically analyzes 97 studies (2015–2025) following the PRISMA framework, integrating findings from HOMER and System Advisor Model (SAM) to evaluate system design, storage integration, grid interaction, and key financial metrics—levelized cost of energy (LCOE), net present value (NPV), internal rate of return (IRR), and payback period (PBP). Findings reveal significant regional variation: the LCOE ranges from $0.03 to $0.12/kWh in developed economies and $0.05 to $0.37/kWh in developing ones, with payback periods spanning 6–12 years, influenced by solar potential, policy support, and grid reliability. Supportive mechanisms—such as feed-in tariffs, net metering, and targeted subsidies—substantially enhance the viability of projects. Persistent challenges include demand–generation mismatch, grid stress from fast charging, and uncertainty in weak regulatory contexts. Furthermore, PV-based EV-charging stations can reduce lifecycle greenhouse gas emissions to 35–110 g CO₂-eq per kWh of electricity delivered to EVs (well-to-wheel basis), representing a 75–90% reduction compared with grid-only charging. Local pollutants such as SO₂, NOₓ, and CO decline by up to 80%, underscoring the environmental superiority of PV-based EV infrastructure. This review presents the first comprehensive global techno-economic synthesis of PV–EV-charging feasibility, highlighting emerging research priorities in AI-driven optimization, second-life battery utilization, and renewable microgrids, offering actionable guidance for researchers, policymakers, and investors to advance resilient, low-carbon EV infrastructure worldwide.