A now well-documented finding is that nonwords created by transposing two internal letters (e.g., vetrical, vercital) are perceived as being more similar to their base word (i.e., vertical) than nonwords created by substituting other letters for the transposed letters (e.g., vefsical, versifal). Most of the relevant research on transposed letter (TL) effects has involved a masked priming procedure with a lexical decision task. The results have typically been explained in terms of the interactions between the orthographic coding process and the lexical access process. The present research was an investigation of TL effects when the TL nonword is a target in both lexical decision tasks and same-different matching tasks in an attempt to determine whether the effect patterns could be explained in a way that is reasonably similar to how current orthographic coding models explain TL effects in masked priming experiments. Essentially parallel results of large TL effects for consonant-consonant transpositions and smaller, but highly significant, TL effects for vowel-vowel transpositions were observed in the two tasks for both adjacent and nonadjacent transpositions. The implications of our data pattern, particularly the large consonant-vowel effect size difference, for accounts of the relevant processes are discussed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2026 APA, all rights reserved).

The dissociation between emotion-label and emotion-laden words has been investigated in both behavioral and electrophysiological studies. However, how individual differences modulates the processing of emotional words has not been fully explored. Trait anxiety, as an important individual difference variable, plays a vital role in emotion processing, and may influence the processing of emotional words. To reveal the effects of trait anxiety and emotional word type on the processing of Chinese words, the present study adopted a lexical decision task (LDT) and event-related potential (ERP) technique to collect the behavioral and electrophysiological data from high-trait-anxious (HTA), medium-trait-anxious (MTA) and low-trait-anxious (LTA) individuals. Behaviorally, participants demonstrated longer reaction times (RTs) and lower accuracy (ACC) when processing emotion-laden words, as opposed to emotion-label words and neutral words. Electrophysiologically, both emotion-label and emotion-laden words induced enhanced N170 amplitudes relative to neutral ones. Compared with neutral words, emotion-laden words elicited larger early posterior negativity (EPN) amplitudes in the right hemisphere and increased late positive component (LPC) amplitudes, whereas emotion-label words elicited a stronger N400. EPN amplitudes were modulated by the interaction between trait anxiety and emotional word type. In HTA individuals, emotion-laden words evoked a larger EPN than emotion-label and neutral words, supporting the mediated emotion concept account, density hypothesis, and embodiment emotion account. During the late elaborative processing stage, LTA participants exhibited larger LPC amplitudes than HTA individuals, which aligns with the “vigilance-avoidance” pattern.

Word recognition is a complex cognitive process that has been often investigated via lexical decision task (LDT). LDT can indeed provide insight into how individuals access and process linguistic information, and how (and if) specific word- and/or individual-level characteristics affect participants’ behavior. Here, we aimed to provide a systematic investigation of the interaction between individual-level reading skills and word-level factors (e.g., frequency, length). Participants were asked to perform a LDT and complete neuropsychological tests assessing their reading-related skills. By using completely data-driven approaches, participants’ performance in the LDT was predicted by word- and individual-level predictors, and the best-fitting model was selected. The best-fitting model dropped all the interactions among deeper-level predictors (e.g., density of the semantic neighborhood) and reading-related skills. The interactions involving word length or word frequency indicated that more expert readers are less sensitive to this kind of factors. These results underscore the importance of considering both lexical properties and individual reading proficiency when investigating the cognitive mechanisms underlying word recognition.

Perturbing the pathway: The impact of lollipops and lidocaine on supramarginal gyrus activity during silent reading tasks.

The influence of L2 proficiency on orthographic coding flexibility is not a linear pattern: The role of orthographic regularity.

ABSTRACT Perceptual Closure, the ability to recognise incomplete stimuli by integrating prior knowledge, has been well-studied in object perception but remains largely unexplored in language research. We examined how lexical feedback (word frequency) interacts with bottom-up visual processing when word stimuli are incomplete. Using event-related potentials (ERPs), participants performed a lexical decision task with high – and low-frequency words in complete or incomplete (top-only) formats. Behavioural results showed additive effects of word frequency and completeness. ERP analyses revealed that completeness affected early perceptual components (P100, N170) and closure-related responses (VAN, P300), while word frequency modulated later lexical-semantic processing (N400). Crucially, word frequency effects emerged earlier for incomplete (350–450 ms) than complete words (450–600 ms), suggesting lexical feedback helps disambiguate perceptually difficult stimuli. Overall, these findings provide insights into the interplay between visual and linguistic information, linking models of word recognition and reading with broader cognitive and neural mechanisms of perception.

Inference generation in the context of expository texts and videos: A lexical decision task study.

ABSTRACT This study investigates the applicability of the Parasitic Model of vocabulary acquisition to Chinese-English-Spanish trilinguals by specifically examining how the second language (L2) primes the third language (L3) in a masked priming lexical decision task, offering new insights on the Parasitic Model of vocabulary acquisition. By using a masked priming lexical decision task, we investigated orthographic and semantic priming effects in sequential trilingual learners with intermediate L2 English and relatively lower L3 Spanish proficiency. Our results showed strong orthographic facilitation, particularly in cognate and orthographic neighbour conditions, highlighting the dominant role of form-based processing in early L3 acquisition. Conversely, semantic priming was minimal, suggesting underdeveloped semantic networks in L3. The findings underscore the applicability of the Parasitic Model to typologically distant languages and reveal that language similarity, particularly orthographic overlap between L2 and L3, drives cross-linguistic transfer even when L2 proficiency is limited. These results have practical implications for multilingual education, especially in contexts where learners are studying languages that are typologically similar, such as English and Spanish.

The current database comprises behavioral data from 267 healthy Spanish adults aged 18 to 51, who participated in a visual lexical decision task conducted in a laboratory setting. Raw data on response accuracy and latencies are available for 4,565 verbs and 4,565 pseudoverbs, along with word prevalence—calculated from accuracy in that task. Additionally, a filtered dataset containing response times (RTs) for only correct responses, applying commonly used thresholds for outliers, is provided. Reliability analyses (via ICC) demonstrated good to excellent scores for the entire dataset. Criterion and construct validity, including a comparative analysis with other databases, were also examined, yielding satisfactory results. The new data can facilitate researchers in conducting virtual or pilot experiments, exploring novel research questions, or constructing models of word recognition. Furthermore, they may be of interest at the clinical level, such as in the selection of materials for cognitive rehabilitation, as the behavioral data and prevalence can be utilized to organize words based on their difficulty for training purposes.

Abstract This study investigated the degree to which cognitive mechanisms support word recognition and word inflection in aging and how this changes in Alzheimer’s disease (AD). We tested competing hypotheses regarding the functional organization of language within the broader cognitive system. One set of hypotheses, derived from dual-system theories like the Declarative/Procedural (DP) model, predicts a functional architecture segregated by linguistic function. An alternative set of hypotheses posits a more integrated architecture, organized by task demands and resource availability. We analyzed participants’ performance on a lexical decision task and a word inflection task, alongside neuropsychological tests, using both behavioral and network analyses. In healthy controls (HC), the network analysis revealed a highly integrated architecture where language tasks were clustered by functional demands (e.g., speed vs. accuracy) rather than segregated along a strict lexicon/grammar divide. In the AD group, behavioral results showed a classic dissociation, with disproportionate impairment on irregular word inflection — a pattern traditionally seen as evidence for a modular memory failure. However, our network analysis revealed a different underlying mechanism. We observed a dramatic network reorganization where a core declarative memory module became functionally isolated, causing language tasks to form new, compensatory alliances with remaining frontal-executive resources. This provides clear evidence of a shift where executive functions are recruited to support language abilities when dedicated memory systems decline. These findings suggest that the cognitive substrate for language is not static but adapts dynamically in neurodegeneration, shifting its reliance from failing declarative memory systems to domain-general executive control pathways.

Background: Examining the influence of phonological neighborhoods on the early stages of visual word recognition provides insights into the architecture and dynamics of lexical representation and processing. Methods: Using event-related potentials (ERPs), this investigation explored how phonological neighborhood density (PND; large vs. small) and type (PNT; tone-edit vs. constituent-edit neighbors) influence the recognition of monosyllabic words in Mandarin Chinese. Participants engaged in a priming paradigm combined with a visual lexical decision task. Results: Behavioral data demonstrated the main effect of PNT: words with tone-edit neighbors produced greater processing inhibition compared to those with constituent-edit neighbors. ERP results revealed that large PND enhanced the P200 amplitude, a frontal-mediated effect that was particularly pronounced for tone-edit neighbors. This early differentiation subsequently propelled a stronger N400 response to tone-edit neighbors, culminating in a significant interaction between PND and PNT during the N400 window. Conclusions: These findings support a cascaded competition model: early PND assessment (P200), enhanced for tone neighbors, amplifies their later N400 conflict. This neural mechanism elucidates the hierarchical organization of phonological processing in Chinese monosyllabic words, thereby clarifying a core component which underpins the recognition of more complex words in Mandarin.

Word recognition in tone languages like Mandarin is influenced not only by phonological structure but also by lexical tone. Prior research using auditory lexical decision tasks has shown that real monosyllables are generally processed more quickly and accurately than tonal gaps i.e., impossible syllable-tone combinations. However, these studies often did not control for syllable overlap between tonal gaps and real monosyllables, potentially underestimating lexical competition effects. The present study addressed this gap by contrasting real monosyllables, syllable-matched tonal gaps, and syllable-unmatched tonal gaps in a controlled auditory lexical decision task with 54 native Mandarin speakers. Results revealed that reaction times were significantly faster and accuracy higher for real monosyllables compared to both syllable-matched tonal gaps and syllable-unmatched tonal gaps. More importantly, syllable-matched tonal gaps elicited slower reaction times than syllable-unmatched tonal gaps, indicating increased lexical competition when tonal gaps share the same syllable as real monosyllables. These findings emphasize the critical role of phonological similarity and lexical competition in Mandarin word recognition. By controlling syllabic overlap, this study improves upon previous methodologies and offers a clearer assessment of auditory word processing in tone languages.

It has been suggested that readers encode letter positions flexibly during word recognition, as evidenced by studies showing that misspelled words can still be read naturally (e.g., transposed letter effects). On the other hand, in some non-Roman alphabetic writing systems, such as Korean Hangul, syllables rather than individual letters within a word might be the main source of confusability, called the transposed syllable (TS) effect. Despite evidence supporting the existence of the TS effect, its specific characteristics remain largely unexplored. Here, we studied variables that may mediate the TS effect in Korean Hangul. In the first two experiments, we used the masked priming lexical decision task and observed that the TS effect (i.e., faster lexical decision when the prime was the internal TS version of the target than when it was the replaced-syllable version) was apparent only for high-frequency Korean Hangul stimuli. We also found that the priming effect on lexical decisions depends on the distance between the transposed syllables. Lastly, in Experiment 3, we demonstrated that the TS effect might also emerge at the pre-lexical perceptual level using the perceptual matching task. Our findings indicate that multiple stages of information processing support the TS effect in Korean Hangul.Supplementary InformationThe online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1038/s41598-025-26940-y.

Upon reading a word, we decompose it into meaningful parts—morphemes. Even if novel, we can derive a likely meaning for it based on how its parts typically behave. Given the typical meaning of affix “-ery,” we may guess that a bottlery is a place to make bottles, although we may alternatively guess that it is the craft of bottle making. In this study, we operationalize this feature—an affix’s semantic typicality—to investigate affix semantics’ role in word processing. Using a lexical decision task and a double dissociative design in an MEG setting, we took advantage of Arabic’s highly productive word-pattern derivational system to investigate the role of meaning typicality for derivational morphology. We contrasted one affix typically denoting tools and atypically places with another affix having the reverse denotation pattern. We found higher activity for typical-meaning words in the temporal pole, inferior temporal gyrus, and middle temporal gyrus at an earlier time window than previously associated with semantic processing. Additionally, we replicated results on noun/verb ambiguity, where ambiguous words had higher activity in the fusiform gyrus and throughout the temporal lobe. Our results on lexicality—contrasting words versus nonwords—were also consistent with previous literature. A finer-grained distinction between pseudowords with real roots versus pseudoroots further allowed us to explore the role of affixes in processing in the temporal pole and the inferior frontal cortex. Overall, our study contributes importantly to findings on affix semantic processing and contributes generally to growing findings on different stages of morphological decomposition.

The pseudohomophone (PH) effect refers to an established finding whereby in a visual lexical decision task, nonword letter strings that are pronounced like real words (e.g., WAWK) are harder to reject than nonword strings that are not pronounced like real words (e.g., FLIS). This article reports three lexical decision experiments that aimed at further exploring the underlying processing mechanisms. In Experiments 1 and 2, we compared PHs like WAWK with unpronounceable nonwords like NRUG and pronounceable nonwords like FLIS, making sure that all stimuli (including real-word fillers) were carefully matched in length, bigram frequency, and number of orthographic neighbors. Matching stimuli in this way resulted in the real-word fillers to be of low lexical frequency (lower than for the PHs' base words). Experiment 1 employed a standard lexical decision task, whereas Experiment 2 used the two-alternative forced choice eye-tracking paradigm originally developed in Kunert and Scheepers (2014). Both experiments converged on showing a reversal of the classical PH effect: while unpronounceable strings like NRUG were correctly rejected relatively quickly, PHs like WAWK were indeed easier to reject than pronounceable nonwords like FLIS. Our final Experiment 3, by contrast, confirmed a "classical" PH effect when the same nonword stimuli were tested against high- rather than low-frequency words as fillers. We conclude that the direction of the PH effect strongly depends on the overall material context. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2025 APA, all rights reserved).

Error dynamics as a marker of reading efficiency development: Insights from lexical decision performance in young readers.

Although there is substantial experimental evidence that the morphemic constituents of compound words (e.g., snowball) are activated during compound word access, it is unclear exactly how the presence of constituents impacts word access. A series of experiments using a masked repetition primed lexical decision task investigates the role played by the morphology of compounds in word access. Semantically transparent compound words show consistent advantages relative to their frequency- and length-matched non-compound controls, but opaque compound words do not. For both kinds of compounds, the effect of repetition priming is the same for the compounds and their controls at short prime durations (50 and 100ms). However, at long prime durations (300ms), the compounds show more priming than their controls. In short, the compound advantage appears to be independent of the facilitation provided by short duration primes, but affected by long duration primes, and it appears to depend on the semantic transparency of the compound. Pseudo-compound words, such as carpet, provide an interesting comparison to compounds, because the language system cannot, a priori, determine whether they are compounds or not. Pseudo-compounds appear to be more difficult to process than their controls, and at long prime durations they show less priming than their controls. These results suggest that the compound advantage in processing arises relatively late in processing and is sensitive to the match between the semantics/morphology of a constructed compound interpretation and the required whole word.

Background/Objectives: The functional architecture connecting speech production and reading comprehension remains unclear in multilinguals. This study investigated the cross-modal interaction between these systems in trilinguals to resolve the debate between Age of Acquisition (AoA) and usage frequency. Methods: We recruited 144 Uyghur (L1)–Chinese (L2)–English (L3) trilinguals, a population uniquely dissociating acquisition order from social dominance. Participants completed a production-to-comprehension priming paradigm, naming pictures in one language before performing a lexical decision task on translated words. Data were analyzed using linear mixed-effects models. Results: Significant cross-language priming confirmed an integrated lexicon, yet a fundamental asymmetry emerged. The top-down influence of production was governed by AoA; earlier-acquired languages (specifically L1) generated more effective priming signals than L2. Conversely, the bottom-up efficiency of recognition was driven by social usage frequency; the socially dominant L2 was the most receptive target, surpassing the heritage L1. Conclusions: The trilingual lexicon operates via “Two Rules”: a history-driven production system (AoA) and an environment-driven recognition system (Social Usage). This asymmetrical baseline challenges simple bilingual extensions and clarifies the dynamics of multilingual language control.

Against the backdrop of globalization driving a growing number of trilingual speakers, understanding the mechanisms of trilingual semantic access has emerged as a pivotal research direction in cognitive linguistics. Existing studies predominantly focus on Indo-European language combinations and explicit memory paradigms, leaving gaps in the exploration of mechanisms for "cross-family + multi-script" language combinations (e.g., Chinese-English-Korean) and comparative analyses across third language (L3) proficiency levels. To address this gap, the present study employed a cross-language repetition priming paradigm—characterized by high ecological validity—using 48 sets of Chinese-English-Korean translation equivalents as stimuli. Sixty-one native Chinese speakers, with English as their second language (L2) and Korean as their third language (L3), participated in semantic categorization and lexical decision tasks. The study aimed to investigate the roles of the first language (L1, Chinese) and L2 in L3 semantic access, as well as differences in access pathways across varying L3 proficiency levels. Results revealed three key findings: (1) L1 Chinese played a dynamic mediating role in L3 Korean semantic access; (2) L2 English exerted a stable mediating role in L3 Korean semantic access; (3) High-proficiency L3 learners accessed L3 semantics directly through the connection between L2 and concepts, whereas low-proficiency learners relied on dual mediation of both L1 and L2.These findings enrich research on trilingual semantic representation, extend bilingual theories to cross-family language contexts, and provide support for differentiated pedagogical strategies in third language instruction.

ABSTRACT Purpose This study examined how word characteristics affect the recognition of written words during early reading development in German, a transparent orthography. We investigated developmental changes in the effects of word regularity, word length, word frequency, and orthographic neighborhood size on word-recognition accuracy and latency, focusing on the critical period from Grade 2 to Grade 4. These changes are interpreted as indicators of the shift from sublexical decoding to fluent lexical processing and can provide insights into when children make this critical step in reading acquisition. Method A lexical decision task was administered to German-speaking children in Grades 2 (n = 127, 54% female), 3 (n = 124, 56% female), and 4 (n = 83, 55% female) to investigate word-recognition accuracy and latency. Using linear mixed-effects modeling, we examined how the predictive value of word characteristics varied across grades. Results Word regularity and length effects declined across grades, particularly in latency, indicating a developmental shift from sublexical to lexical processing. In contrast, word frequency predicted accuracy across all grades, which suggests early lexical involvement. No significant effects of orthographic neighborhood size were found, indicating an absence of lexical facilitation across elementary school. Conclusion The findings support models of reading development proposing a shift from sublexical to lexical processing. By jointly modeling the effects of multiple word characteristics across grades, this study offers novel insights into how the influence of sublexical and lexical processes evolves in a transparent orthography and underscores the importance of developmental timing in models of word recognition.