BackgroundInternet addiction has reached an alarming level in Chinese children, yet the mechanisms linking parenting styles to Internet addiction remain unclear in the Chinese context characterized by intense academic competition and parental authority.ObjectiveThis study examined how Baumrind’s parenting styles—conceptualized as a culturally meaningful framework in Chinese contexts where high parental demands coexist with varying levels of warmth—influence children’s Internet addiction through sequential mediation of self-control and rejection sensitivity, with achievement motivation—particularly salient during primary school years when motivational orientations develop—as a moderator. Baumrind’s parenting style framework provides a culturally meaningful lens for examining parenting patterns in Chinese families, particularly in contexts characterized by high parental demands.MethodsThis cross-sectional study included a sample of 661 grade 4–6 children (Mage = 11.23 years) from central China who completed measures of parenting styles, self-control, rejection sensitivity, achievement motivation, and Internet addiction. The moderated sequential mediation model was tested using PROCESS Model 88.ResultsAuthoritative parenting negatively predicted Internet addiction, whereas authoritarian parenting positively predicted it. Permissive parenting showed no direct effect but significantly reduced self-control. Self-control acted as an independent mediator and enabled rejection sensitivity to serve as a subsequent mediator across all parenting styles. Achievement motivation moderated the self-control → Internet addiction path (enhancing protection) and the rejection sensitivity → Internet addiction path (buffering risk). The self-control mediation pathway showed opposite moderation patterns: positive for authoritative parenting but negative for authoritarian and permissive parenting.ConclusionThese findings challenge traditional authoritarian practices and highlight the benefits of authoritative parenting that integrates guan (discipline) with warmth. They underscore the need for multi-level interventions combining parent education with programs fostering children’s self-control and achievement motivation in culturally grounded family contexts.

This study aimed to investigate the impact of parenting practices used by Asian mothers on their children's emotional development, as well as the mechanisms through which such practices facilitated child emotional and social competence. It also muses on the melding of old and new values in contemporary Asian homes. Direct interviews were conducted with six participants, mothers from various ethnic groups in Klang Valley. The following methodology was used to analyse the data. Five main themes and two sub-themes emerged: the use of authoritative parenting to aid emotional development; the importance of communication and emotional expression; the adaptability of traditional views to modern expectations; the fact that parents must control their emotions and act as role models; and the problems of emotionally boosting children. The data analysis revealed that children of mothers practising authoritative parenting with high levels of warmth and responsiveness and moderate levels of controlled discipline act as attentive and empathetic individuals who can effectively regulate their emotions and struggles. The results indicate that Asian mothers effectively combine a strong sense of respect with emotional support, which contributes positively to their children's emotional well-being. The study’s results will be useful for parents, teachers, and policymakers in drafting parenting techniques suited to the Asian culture.

ABSTRACT Artificial Intelligence (AI) is increasingly used for interactions. While studies show that people prefer human over AI interactions, it is unclear whether this preference holds regardless of the comparative quality of these interactions, where quality is understood in terms of varying levels of warmth and competence. We addressed this using an experimental vignettes study supplemented by open-ended questions. Participants (N = 1067) were subject to a 2 (human or AI interviewer) X 2 (high or low competence) X 2 (high or low warmth) factorial design and asked to rate and explain their perceptions of the interaction. We found that human interactions led to better outcomes on our proxies for interaction quality, compared to AI interactions, and that humans were seen as both warmer and more competent. However, we also found that higher quality AI interactions sometimes led to better interaction quality measures compared to lower quality human interactions. Moreover, we found that while participants were sensitive to variations in both warmth and competence, warmth was the more important factor. These findings have important implications for the ethical deployment of AI in workplaces, given their impact on how satisfied and respected people feel during their interactions with AI.

There is growing scientific interest in understanding the psychological and biological mechanisms underlying preferences for BDSM (Bondage/Discipline, Dominance/Submission, and Sadism/Masochism). However, little research has assessed the influence of perceived parenting styles on healthy sexual interests and behavior and how early-life experiences relate to adult BDSM interests. In the current study, we focus on the possible influence of experienced parenting style, perceived interparental dynamics, and childhood traumatic experience on BDSM interest. A cross-sectional survey was conducted by use of an online questionnaire in BDSM-interested individuals (n = 263; 51% cis-women, 46% cis-men, 3% other) and non-BDSM controls (n = 300; 50% cis-women, 50% cis-men). The questionnaire included the Parental Acceptance and Rejection Questionnaire-short form, an adapted Dutch Relationship Questionnaire, and self-developed questions assessing traumatic childhood events. BDSM participants reported more often authoritarian parenting styles, characterized by high parental control and low levels of warmth and affection. Interparental relationship differed significantly, mainly driven by lower interparental independence in families of BDSM individuals.Physical (11% versus 6%) and emotional abuse (18% versus 12%) were also more common among BDSM participants. These findings suggest that the BDSM group perceived more controlling parenting styles and unequal parental power dynamics compared to individuals in the control group. They also reported more physical and emotional abuse than did controls, while reports on sexual abuse and neglect were very low in both groups. Future research is needed to confirm or nuance the causality of these associations, ultimately contributing to BDSM destigmatization.

Recent research indicates that a majority of individuals (78.4%) are willing to use generative AI tools such as ChatGPT for health-related purposes. However, how individuals perceive and evaluate AI as a source of health information remains less understood. Drawing on literature from AI aversion and the stereotype content model, this study compares perceptions of warmth and competence between ChatGPT and human doctors. Results indicate that when delivering the same health information on moderate drinking, ChatGPT is perceived as less warm and competent than human doctors. This perception further leads to decreased intentions to share the information. Additionally, we examine the moderating effect of prior AI exposure, finding that discrepancies in perceived warmth and competence disappear for those with extensive AI exposure. Individuals with substantial AI experience perceive similar levels of warmth and competence and are equally likely to share health information from ChatGPT as from a human doctor.

This study investigates how anthropomorphic AI chatbot avatars, designed in line with the Stereotype Content Model (SCM) dimensions of warmth and competence, influence university students' perceptions of support for self‐directed learning (SDL) activities. We examined student responses to two distinct avatars—one projecting warmth and the other projecting competence. Using an Action Design Research (ADR) approach, we evaluated the chatbots across three university courses, incorporating perspectives from students, educators and learning designers. Findings reveal that students perceive the avatars differently. The warm avatar provides a stronger emotional connection, while the competent avatar offers more effective task‐oriented learning support. These results highlight the importance of balancing warmth and competence in chatbot design to enhance their perceived usefulness for supporting SDL engagement. The study also supplies rich insights into practical implementation challenges and opportunities from multiple stakeholder viewpoints. Altogether, the research advances our understanding of SCM‐informed chatbot design in educational settings and proposes practical principles for developing AI tools that students perceive as helpful, thereby contributing to the field of human–AI interaction. Practitioner notes What is already known about this topic The potential of AI chatbots to support aspects of self‐directed learning (SDL) in higher education is currently being explored. User perceptions of AI systems are influenced by anthropomorphic design cues, often understood through dimensions like warmth and competence (related to the Stereotype Content Model—SCM). Designing AI educational tools requires considering how different interactional styles (eg, warmth vs. competence) can affect student engagement and perceived usefulness. What this paper adds Empirical insights into students' perceptions of chatbot avatars designed with varying levels of warmth and competence, based on the SCM, and how these perceptions relate to their reported engagement and perceived support for SDL in university courses. Evidence that students distinguish between warmth and competence in chatbot avatars, associating warmth with socio‐emotional connection and competence with task‐related learning support. A set of SCM‐informed design principles for developing anthropomorphic chatbots intended to be perceived as helpful and engaging for supporting SDL. Evidence of integrating educator and designer perspectives (through Action Design Research) to uncover practical implementation factors beyond student perceptions alone. Implications for practice and/or policy Educators can select or advocate for chatbot designs that appropriately balance warmth and competence based on specific pedagogical goals and perceived student needs (eg, more warmth for initial engagement and more competence for complex task support). When implementing chatbots for SDL support, institutions should consider designs informed by user perception research (like SCM) to increase the likelihood of student acceptance and perceived value. Policy discussions on AI in education should incorporate user‐centred design principles, including SCM dimensions, alongside ethical guidelines to support responsible adoption and the development of tools perceived as effective by users.

This study examined moderating effects of family warmth on relationships between positive and negative affect and alcohol and cannabis use among American Indian (AI) youth. Participants were 5,831 AI students (seventh-12th grade) surveyed during the 2021 and 2022 school years. Students completed measures of positive and negative affect, family warmth, and past year alcohol and cannabis use. Multigroup and latent moderated structural equation modeling models tested hypothesized main and interactive effects of hypothesized relationships and explored moderation by sex. Family warmth and negative affect, but not positive affect, related significantly to alcohol use; all three predictors related significantly to cannabis use. Family warmth did not moderate associations between negative affect and either substance in the overall sample, nor the association of positive affect to alcohol use. However, family warmth moderated associations between positive affect and cannabis, with family warmth bolstering protective effects of positive affect. Female youth were less likely than male youth to use alcohol with increasing levels of warmth. Furthermore, compounding protective effects of family warmth and positive affect on cannabis use were stronger among female compared to male youth. Several factors may explain the lack of a buffering effect of family warmth on the relationship between negative affect and substance use, including the use of a general affect measure rather than individual measures of depression and anxiety. Nevertheless, these findings suggest substance use interventions should consider the compounding effects of family warmth and positive affect, particularly among female AI youth. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2025 APA, all rights reserved).

Aims: The present research investigates the influence of permissive parenting style on the development of emotional regulation in children. It aims to explore whether the high levels of warmth and freedom, and low levels of control and lack of boundaries have negative or positive effect on child’s emotional regulation, one of the crucial skills acquired in the process of development. Study Design: Minireview of peer-reviewed literature on the relationship between permissive parenting and emotional regulation in children. Place and Duration of Study: The review used research from variety of countries and settings, covering literature from 1966 to 2023. Methodology: The paper reviews and integrates literature on parenting styles, particularly permissive parenting, and its effect on emotional regulation. The review focuses on peer-reviewed studies, theoretical frameworks, and real-world applications, exploring both positive and negative effects, as well as moderating factors. Results: Findings suggest that emotional regulation is heavily shaped by a parenting style. The absence of discipline and structure that are associated with the permissive parenting style are often linked to the emotional dysregulation in children. This dysregulation can appear as problems with impulsivity, difficulty in stress management, and poor coping mechanisms. However, the outcomes are not uniform and can be influenced by factors such as cultural norms, socioeconomic status, and individual temperament. Future Research: Future studies should examine how cultural, socioeconomic, and individual factors shape the relationship between permissive parenting and emotional regulation.

Relationship theorists posit that children’s daily interactions with others are the foundation of their overall relationship quality (Hinde, 1979); however, few studies have tested this proposition. Warm sibling relationships have a positive impact on social-emotional adjustment, making it important to consider how the features of daily sibling interactions may be linked to positive sibling bonds. This study investigated the connection between global aspects of sibling relationship quality (i.e., warmth, conflict) and the focal child’s reports of their daily interactions with their sibling; the latter did not participate. Thirty-three early adolescents ( M age = 11.5 years; 14 girls, 19 boys) completed 14 daily diaries regarding positive (e.g., helping) and negative (e.g., fighting) sibling interactions. Participants completed the Sibling Relationship Questionnaire (Furman & Buhrmester, 1985) to assess global levels of warmth and conflict. Results provide new insight into the dynamics of daily sibling interactions. For example, being happy with a sibling was most closely associated with global warmth and frequent daily helping was most strongly associated with lower global conflict. On days in which children reported more negative sibling interactions, they also reported fewer positive interactions. When participants reported behaving positively toward their sibling on any given day, they also reported their sibling reciprocated positive behaviors. Global warmth and conflict did not moderate these associations. Our findings help support the theoretical notion that daily interactions are linked, but not interchangeable, with relationship quality. Future research is warranted to further elucidate the forms and dynamics of daily interactions between siblings.

BackgroundNon-birthing parents are typically present for the birth of their infants. Evidence suggests that some non-birthing parents may experience witnessing childbirth as traumatic, with some going on to develop childbirth-related post-traumatic stress disorder (CB-PTSD). This study aimed to explore the associations between non-birthing parents’ experiences of childbirth, symptoms of CB-PTSD, and the parent-infant relationship. The COVID-19 pandemic context is considered throughout the study, although it must be noted that most data were not collected during UK lockdown restrictions.MethodsA cross-sectional design was utilised. Participants were non-birthing parents who were present for the birth of their first infant, aged between 6 weeks and 12 months old. Participants were recruited through social media platforms via third-sector organisations, namely Dad Matters; a Home-Start project and The Birth Trauma Association. A total of 312 non-birthing parents provided demographic details and obstetric details of the mother’s birth. They also completed questionnaires about their experiences of the birth they were present for, CB-PTSD symptoms, and levels of warmth and invasion in the parent-infant relationship.ResultsWithin this sample, 49% experienced the birth they were present for as potentially traumatic. Moreover, 10.1% met clinical criteria for CB-PTSD symptoms, and an additional 7% met sub-clinical criteria. Non-birthing parents who experienced birth as potentially traumatic reported significantly higher CB-PTSD symptoms and felt a greater sense of invasion in relation to their infant. However, levels of warmth in the parent-infant relationship were not statistically different between the two groups. CB-PTSD symptoms had significant associations with invasion but not with warmth, and they mediated the relationship between possible birth trauma and invasion in the parent-infant relationship.ConclusionsThis study’s sample revealed a substantial proportion of non-birthing parents experiencing birth as potentially traumatic, with 10.1% meeting CB-PTSD criteria, a higher incidence than previously reported in the literature. This may be attributed the implications of the COVID-19 pandemic. CB-PTSD symptoms were negatively associated with feelings of invasion in the parent-infant relationship, but not with warmth. Future research should aim to replicate this study design with routine samples of non-birthing parents recruited from maternity settings.

A sibling connection is a special and intricate link that develops between siblings in a family. Sibling relationships can vary greatly in kind and quality, but they frequently have a significant impact on how people develop emotionally, socially, and as individuals. Sibling rivalry can stem from a variety of factors, including differences in personalities, interests, or achievements. A main factor could be perceived favoritism from parents or comparisons made by family members or society. The practice of discussing and amicably resolving conflicts or disagreements between people or organizations is known as conflict resolution. The aim of the research was to determine the influence of sibling relationships on the development of conflict resolution styles in young adults. Adult Sibling Relationship and Thomas-Kilman Conflict Resolution scale containing 15 items was used to collect the quantitative sample. The sample consisted of (N=80, Males=40 and Females=40 ranging) from 15-24 years with a mean age of 22 years. Results showed that females prefer collaborative conflict resolution while males tend to have competed or avoiding conflict resolution style. Accommodating conflict resolution is moderately higher in males while compromising conflict resolution is significantly higher in females. Female siblings show higher levels of warmth towards their siblings compared to males. Study also showed that higher warmth leads to lower tendency of avoiding conflict resolution style and lower conflict supports the development of harmonious conflict resolution styles. Lower rivalry may precipitate in the form of avoidant conflict resolution approach.

Though sexual assault is prevalent among college campuses, there is a paucity of research on whether risk factors vary for different racial/ethnic groups. As such, this article examines familial and individual risk factors and three sexual assault types (coercive, physically forced, and incapacitated) with depressive symptoms and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms to see whether such risks vary for Black/African American, White, Asian, and Hispanic groups of college students. Data were gathered in 2019 to 2020 from 783 undergraduate college women and men at a large public university in the Midwestern United States. Results revealed that in terms of family background, Black/African American, Asian, and Hispanic students reported more experiences of child physical abuse and lower levels of warmth and support compared to White students. White college students, however, reported more frequent heavy drinking compared to Asian and Hispanic students. For sexual assault, Asian students reporting experiencing incapacitated sexual assault more so than White students, whereas Black/African American students reported experiences of physically forced sexual assault more so than White students. For mental health, Hispanic students reported more PTSD symptoms compared to White students while Asian students reported more depressive symptoms compared to their White counterparts. It is noteworthy that early experiences of child physical abuse and lower warmth and support continued to significantly impact both PTSD symptoms and depressive symptoms. Our results demonstrate the importance of going beyond the typical dichotomy of White and non-White to gain a more nuanced understanding of how risk factors vary for different racial and ethnic groups, which has implications for intervention and prevention when understanding sexual assault and mental health outcomes.

Intergroup helping is a crucial interaction behavior between groups, which can be classified as either dependency-oriented or autonomy-oriented help. The widely recognized model of intergroup helping relations as status relations proposes that dependency-oriented help enables the helper group to maintain its dominant position. In other words, when a helper group has the motivation to preservation of their intergroup status, it will be more inclined to provide the recipient with dependency-oriented help. However, little research to date has focused on whether members of recipient groups recognize this status maintenance motivation, and how this might influence their inference of altruistic motivations or their perceptions of the helper’s warmth and competence. The results of three experiments involving a total of 677 participants indicated that compared to those receiving autonomy-oriented help, those receiving dependency-oriented help inferred a higher level of status maintenance and a lower level of altruistic motivation of the helper. Furthermore, they also perceived the helpers as having lower levels of warmth and competence. In response, these perceptions led to a reduced willingness to accept offers of help or cooperation. This effect was stronger when the help offered was needed more by the recipients, or when the helpers ignored requests for autonomy-oriented help and provided dependency-oriented help instead. This research complements the existing understandings of autonomy- and dependency-oriented help from the recipient’s perspective, while also outlining potential directions for future research.

Abstract Previous research on intergroup trust has focused predominantly on trustors' dispositional profiles while overlooking the pivotal role of perceptions of the target outgroup and their intricate interactions. Building on the “Big‐Two” model of social perception, four studies (N = 802) examined the proposition that intergroup trust is a joint function of the target outgroup's perceived warmth and competence. Studies 1 and 2 investigated how American and Chinese people's perceptions of each other regarding warmth and competence impact their mutual trust, respectively. Study 3 manipulated social perceptions of a virtual group by presenting warmth‐ and competence‐related cues and captured the resulting intergroup trust behavior. Study 4 examined intergroup trust toward four natural groups generally perceived to have different levels of warmth and competence in both cooperative and competitive contexts. Consistent with our theoretical predictions, perceived warmth promoted intergroup trust only when the target outgroup was perceived as competent. Alternatively, the sign of perceived competence's role in predicting intergroup trust depended primarily on perceived warmth. These findings underscore the indispensability of both warmth and competence in shaping intergroup trust and have implications for international conflict resolution and peacekeeping.

Latino immigrants within the United States experience various stressors, which have been linked to the development and exacerbation of internalizing symptoms among Latino youth. Therefore, it is crucial to explore factors that may buffer the impact of stress among immigrant families. Fathers may influence child outcomes through positive parenting behaviors, yet Latino fathers have been underrepresented in research. This study examined how paternal warmth and support may moderate the association between the accumulation of stress and child internalizing symptoms among low-income, Latino immigrant families. Participants included 62 children between the ages of 6 and 10, and their paternal caregivers (94% fathers; 90% born in Mexico). This study utilized a multi-method approach including parent-report, child-report and observational measures. Participants completed questionnaires and video-recorded family interaction tasks during home visits. Stress was positively associated with child-reported depression. Self-reported paternal warmth was associated with fewer parent-reported child internalizing symptoms and moderated the effects of stress on symptoms. Analyses showed a significant positive association between paternal stress and child internalizing symptoms for children with the lowest levels of parental warmth. However, when paternal warmth was high, accumulation of stress and child internalizing symptoms were not related. Thus, high levels of warmth buffered the impact of stress on internalizing symptoms. This study highlights the importance of Latino fathers' parenting behaviors on child internalizing symptoms.

This study aimed to explore the current education status of Intellectually Disabled Children and the challenges to inclusion of Intellectually Disabled Children in Pakistan. Using a quantitative research approach, data was gathered from the families of students having intellectual disabilities using mother’s reports about the interaction of normal sibling with intellectually disabled children in a school environment. The findings of the study reveal that the level of warmth is much higher in the inclusive education classes as compared to the Rivalries, Relative Status and Conflicts with intellectually disabled students. A higher level of empathy increases the sense of responsibility, tolerance, and encouragement. The research strongly recommends that the educationist and professionals must initiate the teachers’ awareness programs about disabilities. Government and media can assist in spreading awareness about relationship and interactions among students by establishing awareness programs that focuses on the implementation of the inclusive education systems in Pakistan.

Sustainability in a workplace is built upon the inclusion of aging workers and gender equality. Although prior tourism research has examined the impact of employees’ age and gender on customers’ behavioral responses, little effort has been made to examine the joint effect of these two characteristics. Thus, using an extended stereotype content model, this study examines the mechanisms through which tour guides’ age and gender affect customers’ WOM intentions. Across two experimental studies, we identified a significant influence of the two-way interaction of age and gender such that older (vs. younger) age decreased WOM intentions for female tour guides but not for their male counterparts. We further identified that warmth and competence differences explain the effect of age on WOM intentions for male and female tour guides differently. For female tour guides, the negative influence of age on WOM intentions was explained by lower levels of perceived warmth. In contrast, participants perceived older male tour guides as less competent than their younger counterparts, which then significantly influenced decreased WOM intentions. However, customers showed higher levels of warmth toward older tour guides, and this perceived warmth inference counteracts the perceived deficiency in competence. These findings have significant theoretical and practical implications.

The study examined gender differences in behaviours and attitudes towards own and other ethnic groups among Sarawakians. The questionnaire data were from 70 respondents living in Sarawak, Malaysia. The questionnaire was on social interaction, attitudes towards ethnic relations, ethnic group perceptions, and ethnic group importance in the context of the Malaysian society. The results showed that there were no significant differences between female and male participants who reported frequent social interactions with people from their own ethnic groups and other ethnic groups. However, they seldom discuss interethnic issues and attend inter religious dialogues with other ethnic groups. The female and male participants were also not significantly different in their ethnic group perceptions. They preferred to be with people from the same ethnic groups in various settings, and acknowledged that people from different ethnic groups are different and yet similar. However, there was a gender difference for attitude towards ethnic relations. The participants reported positive attitude towards ethnic relations. Compared to the female participants, the male participants expressed a strong support for the right of ethnic groups to maintain their own unique traditions and, at the same time, expressed a stronger belief in the need for minority groups to accept the established system of government in this country to attain the Malaysian dream of racial harmony. There was also a significant gender difference for ethnic group importance in that the female participants were more selective in which ethnic group they felt warm towards unlike the male participants who felt similar levels of warmth towards Malay, Indigenous, Chinese, and Indians. The male participants were more upfront in asserting pride in their ethnic identity and the right for ethnic groups to maintain their distinctiveness. This analysis of gender differences in ethnic attitudes using a model of behaviour-attitudes-values is eye-opening because it shows that Malaysians can display social interaction behaviour that shows ethnic openness, and somewhat express attitudes that show ethnic openness but at the values level, they are still in the comfort zone of their own ethnic group.

The aim of the present study was to investigate whether authoritative teaching at the classroom-level was associated with bullying victimisation, and how this association evolved over the course of upper elementary school (i.e. in grades 4 through 6) by estimating whether the association declined with time. Data came from the first three waves of an ongoing longitudinal project examining social and moral correlates of school bullying. Survey data were analysed from 1,830 students. Multilevel analyses showed that teachers who displayed high levels of warmth, caring, and supportiveness together with high levels of structure, control, and demandingness tended to have students who reported less bullying victimisation. This association between authoritative teaching at the classroom-level and bullying victimisation, while still significant, decreased over the course of the two-year study.

Background Warmth has been shown to disproportionately affect how we perceive women socially, resulting in different standards for men and women in authority roles that emphasize competence. Methods We conducted two studies to determine whether warmth-related traits play a more central role in the evaluations of female lecturers than in their male counterparts such that women are disproportionately “punished” in perceivers’ eyes for lacking warmth, but not rewarded for possessing it. In Study 1, we assessed university students’ ratings of their male and female lecturers’ warmth and competence traits and compared them with their overall evaluations of those lecturers. In Study 2 we followed this up by analysing the warmth- and competence-related word frequency in Rate My Professor reviews of male and female lecturers. Results We found that when lecturers received low warmth ratings, this rating was much more integral to how female lecturers were evaluated on other dimensions than it was for male lecturers, while at high levels of warmth there was no gender difference. This provided some support for the idea that women are “punished” for lacking warmth traits while men are not. In study 2, we found that references to several warmth-related traits followed a pattern where reviews of men and women did not differ on the positive end of the trait spectrum, but women were more likely than men to be referred to with words on the negative end of the same spectrum, once again suggesting that women may be more likely than men to be punished for lacking warmth (but not necessarily praised for possessing it). Conclusions Overall, these studies provide some support for the idea that women in authority are viewed disproportionately negatively for lacking warmth and set the basis for future research into the role of warmth in evaluating high-status women.