Levels Of Human Use Research Articles

A scenario study of the acceptability to ocean users of more and less invasive management after shark-human interactions

Little is known about relationships between features of shark-human interactions and community expectations of authorities to respond. Previous research reports attitudes to wildlife management are influenced by context. This study comprised three phases. Phase one analysed social media related to shark management, identifying five commonly discussed variables in shark-human interaction contexts likely to influence attitudes towards management response. These context variables were: Level of human use of location; recency of other bites at the location; activity of victim; time of day; severity of harm to victim. Phase two used focus groups with ocean users to validate the Phase one context variables, and refine scenarios and management response options for Phase three, an experimental survey measuring the influence of context variables on New South Wales ocean user attitudes to management responses. The article focuses on Phase three, which randomly assigned participants (N = 1769) one of 48 shark-human interaction scenarios comprising different manipulations of the five context variables. Participants rated support for 20 shark management response options. Contrary to expectations, context variables did not influence attitudes to shark management responses. There was almost unanimous support for education and research as preferred response to managing risk from sharks, and little support for invasive strategies perceived to harm marine life, such as shark nets and drumlines. Support for shark management responses decreased as invasiveness of the response increased. The findings reflect community dislike of ‘knee-jerk’ policy making, indicating that attitudes to shark management are relatively stable, and do not fluctuate in response to specific incidents.

Desert bighorn sheep responses to human activity in south-eastern Utah

Abstract ContextHuman activity in wildlands can influence wildlife populations by decreasing or degrading habitat, decreasing survival, or through displacement. For bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis), some human activities are detrimental and may result in physiological stress, altered activity budgets, or habitat abandonment. From 1979 to 2000, human recreation increased over 300% in areas occupied by desert bighorn sheep (O. c. nelsoni) in south-eastern Utah. Concurrently, the population of desert bighorn sheep occupying the Potash Bighorn Sheep Management Unit of south-eastern Utah was in steep decline. AimsWe investigated behavioural responses of desert bighorn sheep to different levels of human activity in this area from 2002 to 2003. MethodsWe divided the study population into two areas on the basis of the level of human use, i.e. low and high. We observed desert bighorn sheep at seven sites within these areas, including three with a high level of human use and four areas of a low level of human use. Key resultsDesert bighorn sheep spent significantly less time grazing and more time vigilant in areas of a high level of human use than in areas of a low level of human use. ConclusionsHuman recreational use of desert bighorn sheep habitat has the potential to negatively affect foraging by desert bighorn sheep. ImplicationsWe raise a cautionary flag because recreational use in bighorn sheep habitat near Moab, Utah, continues to increase and bighorn numbers continue to decline. When managers consider proposals to increase areas or trails for human recreation, they should incorporate ways to minimise impacts and reduce stressors to bighorn sheep.

Effect of human activity on habitat selection in the endangered Barbary macaque

AbstractThe exponential growth of human population and infrastructure is significantly reducing the amount of ecological resources available for wild animals. We analyzed the effect of human activity on Barbary macaques Macaca sylvanus, an endangered species restricted to the fragmented forests of Morocco and Algeria, using location data from five social groups inhabiting Ifrane National Park, Morocco. We used a resource selection function to explore the effects of anthropogenic disturbance on macaque habitat selection, using nine natural, social, and anthropogenic disturbance variables as predictors. Forest cover, home range overlap, herding route proximity, and road proximity were all significant predictors of habitat use. Macaques avoided areas used by local shepherds, to reduce the risk of attack by shepherds’ dogs, but approached roads to increase the chances of provisioning by tourists. However, herding route and road use varied seasonally in line with levels of human use, suggesting that macaques may be navigating their environment strategically (in space and time) to balance food acquisition and risk avoidance. The results of this study highlight the importance of assessing human impact on habitat selection in both space and time. Our data on seasonal variations in macaques’ use of roads can help prevent road injuries, a major source of mortality for provisioned macaques, by focusing management efforts by national park workers in time and space. Furthermore, understanding when and where macaques seek provisioning from tourists can help combat provisioning, which negatively impacts macaque health, behavior, and susceptibility to poaching.

Managing human disturbance: factors influencing flight-initiation distance of birds in a West African nature reserve

Escape behaviour in response to perceived predators can be employed as a guide when designating protected areas around sensitive bird species to minimise the impact of human disturbance. A key measure of escape response is flight-initiation distance (FID), the distance at which a prey animal initiates its escape when approached by a potential predator. We tested the predictions of optimal escape theory by determining the factors that influence FID of bird species in a Nigerian reserved area and its surrounding habitats, and so the potential utility of FID in managing human disturbance on birds, for the first time within a West African context. We tested how FID varied with group size, proximity to vegetation acting as protective cover, levels of human use, and survival rate, and whether these relationships varied by species. We collected 504 FIDs for seven bird species in Amurum Forest Reserve and its surrounding habitats (Jos, Nigeria). The FID was lower in larger groups and when species were closer to protective cover. The FID was lower outside of the protected area because animals in sites with higher levels of human presence and use may become habituated. The FID was higher for species with higher survival, being consistent with predictions from life history theory. Overall, birds perceived humans as a potential threat and responded in accordance to the predictions of optimal escape theory, with FID increasing with increased cost of staying. Reserve managers in Africa could use species- and context-specific FIDs to designate buffer distances for the protection of wildlife from human disturbance.

Spatiotemporal Dynamics of Vibrio spp. within the Sydney Harbour Estuary.

Vibrio are a genus of marine bacteria that have substantial environmental and human health importance, and there is evidence that their impact may be increasing as a consequence of changing environmental conditions. We investigated the abundance and composition of the Vibrio community within the Sydney Harbour estuary, one of the most densely populated coastal areas in Australia, and a region currently experiencing rapidly changing environmental conditions. Using quantitative PCR (qPCR) and Vibrio-specific 16S rRNA amplicon sequencing approaches we observed significant spatial and seasonal variation in the abundance and composition of the Vibrio community. Total Vibrio spp. abundance, derived from qPCR analysis, was higher during the late summer than winter and within locations with mid-range salinity (5–26 ppt). In addition we targeted three clinically important pathogens: Vibrio cholerae, V. Vulnificus, and V. parahaemolyticus. While toxigenic strains of V. cholerae were not detected in any samples, non-toxigenic strains were detected in 71% of samples, spanning a salinity range of 0–37 ppt and were observed during both late summer and winter. In contrast, pathogenic V. vulnificus was only detected in 14% of samples, with its occurrence restricted to the late summer and a salinity range of 5–26 ppt. V. parahaemolyticus was not observed at any site or time point. A Vibrio-specific 16S rRNA amplicon sequencing approach revealed clear shifts in Vibrio community composition across sites and between seasons, with several Vibrio operational taxonomic units (OTUs) displaying marked spatial patterns and seasonal trends. Shifts in the composition of the Vibrio community between seasons were primarily driven by changes in temperature, salinity and NO2, while a range of factors including pH, salinity, dissolved oxygen (DO) and NOx (Nitrogen Oxides) explained the observed spatial variation. Our evidence for the presence of a spatiotemporally dynamic Vibrio community within Sydney Harbour is notable given the high levels of human use of this waterway, and the significant increases in seawater temperature predicted for this region.

Geolandscapes and Geotourism: Integrating Nature and Culture in the Bucegi Mountains of Romania

Originally considered “exclusively geomorphological”, geolandscapes are multilayered landscapes defined by remarkable sights of natural diversity and different levels of human use. The paper approaches geolandscapes and geotourism from a geographical perspective and advances a unifying view of geodiversity, biodiversity and cultural values as major components of geolandscapes. Within this context it addresses the compelling issue of endangered protected areas, especially since mass tourism practices and lack of proper policies are involved. The Bucegi Mountains in Romania’s Southern Carpathians are rich in geodiversity and biodiversity. They comprise a Sacred Natural Site as a last reminder of ancient beliefs and a war memorial as an iconic landmark and a place of remembrance. Inconsistencies between international standards for conservation and local management practices are obvious. As an overcrowded destination, the Bucegi Mountains face biodiversity loss and constant degradation, with sacredness and symbolic significance being on the brink of perishing. It is the first time a comparative analysis is carried out with the purpose of revealing the full extent of the educational potential and endangered status of geolandscapes, understood as both natural and cultural landscapes. Geotourism, which hasn’t been introduced so far in the Bucegi Mountains area, is advocated as an educational tool for geolandscape management.

Annelids, arthropods or molluscs are suitable as surrogate taxa for selecting conservation reserves in estuaries

The urgent need to conserve aquatic biodiversity and the lack of spatial data on biodiversity has motivated conservation planners and researchers to search for more readily obtainable information that could be used as proxies or surrogates. The surrogate taxon approach shows promise in some aquatic environments (e.g. intertidal) but not others (e.g. coral reefs, temperate rocky reefs). Estuaries are transitional environments at the land–sea junction with a unique biodiversity, but are the most threatened of aquatic environments because of high levels of human use. The comparatively small numbers of conservation reserves means that estuarine biodiversity is poorly protected. Selecting additional conservation reserves within estuaries would be facilitated by the identification of a suitable surrogate that could be used in conservation planning. In one estuary in Southeast Australia, we evaluated separately the effectiveness of annelids, arthropods, and molluscs as surrogates for predicting the species richness, abundance, assemblage variation, and summed irreplaceability of other species and for coincidentally representing other species in networks of conservation reserves selected for each surrogate. Spatial patterns in the species richness and assemblage variation (but not summed irreplaceability) of each surrogate were significantly correlated with the spatial patterns of other species. The total abundance of annelids and the total abundance of arthropods were each significantly correlated with the total abundances of other species. Networks of conservation reserves selected to represent each surrogate performed significantly better than random selection in representing other species. The greatest number of non-surrogate species was coincidentally included in reserves selected for the group of mollusc species. We conclude that annelids and arthropods are effective surrogate taxa for identifying spatial variation in several measures of conservation value (species richness, abundance, assemblage variation) in estuaries. We also conclude that spatial data on annelids, arthropods or molluscs can be used to select networks of conservation reserves in estuaries. The demonstrated effectiveness of these surrogates should facilitate future conservation planning within estuaries.

Shorebird Use of Sandy Beaches in Central California

In this study, the relationship between physical attributes of sandy beaches, levels of human disturbance, and shorebird occurrence was investigated. The linear density km-1 of shorebirds on 42 km of sandy beaches in Monterey Bay, California was documented from late autumn through spring, and the relationship of shorebird densities to two physical variables (slope of beach swash zone, total beach width), one spatial variable (distance to Elkhorn Slough, a wetland of regional importance for shorebirds), and relative level of human disturbance was analyzed using stepwise multiple regression. The six most abundant species were Sanderling (Calidris alba), Willet (Tringa semipalmata), Marbled Godwit (Limosa fedoa), Black-bellied Plover (Pluvialis squatarola), Whimbrel (Numenius phaeopus) and Snowy Plover (Charadrius alexandrinus). Mean abundance of four of the six most abundant species (Marbled Godwit, Willet, Whimbrel, Black-bellied Plover) was negatively related to swash zone slope; flatter beaches supported more shorebirds. Mean abundance of all species analyzed was negatively related to distance to Elkhorn Slough; beaches closer to the mouth of Elkhorn Slough supported more shorebirds. Total beach width had no effect on shorebird occurrence, and level of human use appeared to have no effect. Most shorebird species were more abundant on beaches at low than at high tide, indicating that sandy beaches provide important foraging habitat regionally.

The Impacts of Human Visitation on Mussel Bed Communities Along the California Coast: Are Regulatory Marine Reserves Effective in Protecting These Communities?

Rocky intertidal habitats frequently are used by humans for recreational, educational, and subsistence-harvesting purposes, with intertidal populations damaged by visitation activities such as extraction, trampling, and handling. California Marine Managed Areas, particularly regulatory marine reserves (MRs), were established to provide legal protection and enhancement of coastal resources and include prohibitions on harvesting intertidal populations. However, the effectiveness of MRs is unclear as enforcement of no-take laws is weak and no regulations protect intertidal species from other detrimental visitor impacts such as trampling. The goal of this study was two-fold: (1) to determine impacts from human visitation on California mussel populations (Mytilus californianus) and mussel bed community diversity; and (2) to investigate the effectiveness of regulatory MRs in reducing visitor impacts on these populations. Surveys of mussel populations and bed-associated diversity were compared: (1) at sites subjected to either high or low levels of human use, and (2) at sites either unprotected or with regulatory protection banning collecting. At sites subjected to higher levels of human visitation, mussel populations were significantly lower than low-use sites. Comparisons of mussel populations inside and outside of regulatory MRs revealed no consistent pattern suggesting that California no-take regulatory reserves may have limited effectiveness in protecting mussel communities. In areas where many people visit intertidal habitats for purposes other than collecting, many organisms will be affected by trampling, turning of rocks, and handling. In these cases, effective protection of rocky intertidal communities requires an approach that goes beyond the singular focus on collecting to reduce the full suite of impacts.

Landscape approaches to studying the effects of disturbance on waterbirds

The internationally important populations of waterbirds that winter in the United Kingdom can face intense pressure from human disturbance as a result of the high urbanization found around many protected coastal or inland wetland sites. Here, I describe and evaluate an approach that has been used to investigate the spatial effects of human disturbance on waterbirds. Rather than directly investigating behavioural responses to individual disturbance events, the presence of features in the landscape associated with disturbance is instead used as a surrogate, with the essential aim being to demonstrate that bird numbers or densities are depressed or their behaviour altered in proximity to areas used by humans. This paper first describes case studies that demonstrate the limitations of the basic inference (i.e. that disturbance influences patterns of waterbird distribution or behaviour) and then how investigations might be strengthened. For conclusions to be sound, it is particularly important that other factors, such as food supply, that might also explain the spatial patterns observed are considered or other corroborative evidence presented. The approach is thus least applicable in the most heterogeneous environments where many factors, perhaps spatially autocorrelated, may explain variation in distribution or behaviour. However, greatest confidence in the validity of conclusions may be gained where studies are able to show (ideally by experimental manipulation) that species’ distributions or behaviour vary temporally in line with the levels of human use of the features examined. Although its aim and scope are thus limited, the use of a landscape approach, provided that it takes into account other factors affecting spatial variation in bird abundance or behaviour, can provide a preliminary assessment of species avoidance of key sources of disturbance that may offer a framework for more detailed investigation.

As formigas como indicadores biológicos do impacto humano em manguezais da costa sudeste da Bahia

Mangroves are common in estuaries along the Atlantic coast of Brazil. Although plant diversity is low, this ecosystem supports a range of animals, offering some resources for non-aquatic organisms. Many insects live in mangroves and, between them, many ant species that are exclusively arboreous. Mangroves throughout the world suffer from high levels of human impact, and this is particularly true for southeastern Bahia, where land-uses include traditional crab and fish exploitation, urban development, refuse pollution, recreation, and timber extraction. The ants of 13 mangrove sites, representing a range of levels of human use, have been studied along 250 km of the southern Bahia littoral, between Itacaré and Porto Seguro. Ants were sampled both inside and on the periphery of the tidal zone, using entomological rainbow, baiting, collect of hollow branches and pit-fall. A total of 108 species have been collected, with the richest genera being Camponotus and Pseudomyrmex, and the most frequent belonging to the genera Azteca and Crematogaster. The ant community living on the periphery of mangrove areas is rather homogeneous regardless of the degree of environmental perturbation, but varies markedly with the disturbance inside the mangroves themselves. The evolution of richness of the both communities, mangrove and periphery, is negatively related to the human effects, even limited to the periphery. Ant communities therefore have the potential to be useful as biological indicators of ecological impacts of land-use in these mangrove systems.

Using NDVI to Assess Vegetative Land Cover Change in Central Puget Sound

We used the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) in the rapidly growing Puget Sound region over three 5-year time blocks between 1986-1999 at three spatial scales in 42 Watershed Administrative Units (WAUs) to assess changes in the amounts and patterns of green vegetation. On average, approximately 20% of the area in each WAU experienced significant NDVI change over each 5-year time block. Cumulative NDVI change over 15 years (summing change over each 5-year time block) was an average of approximately 60% of each WAU, but was as high as 100% in some. At the regional scale, seasonal weather patterns and green-up from logging were the primary drivers of observed increases in NDVI values. At the WAU scale, anthropogenic factors were important drivers of both positive and negative NDVI change. For example, population density was highly correlated with negative NDVI change over 15 years (r = 0.66, P < 0.01), as was road density (r = 0.71, P < 0.01). At the smallest scale (within 3 case study WAUs) land use differences such as preserving versus harvesting forest lands drove vegetation change. We conclude that large areas within most watersheds are continually and heavily impacted by the high levels of human use and development over short time periods. Our results indicate that varying patterns and processes can be detected at multiple scales using changes in NDVIa values.

Response of Wolves to Corridor Restoration and Human Use Management

Corridor restoration is increasingly being used to connect habitat in mountainous areas where rugged topography and increasing human activity fragment habitat. Wolves ( Canis lupus) are a conservation priority because they avoid areas with high levels of human use and are ecologically important predators. We examined how corridor restoration through a golf course changes the distribution of wolves and their prey in Jasper National Park, Alberta, Canada. We followed and recorded wolf paths in the snow both within the corridor and in the surrounding landscape before and after a corridor was re-established. Track transects were used to estimate prey abundance and snow depths, and trail counters measured human activity. We compared resources on wolf paths to available movement routes using conditional logistic regression and also compared resources used by wolves before and after restoration. We addressed potential confounding effects of prey abundance, snow depths, and levels of human use by testing for changes in these variables. Prior to restoration, wolves traveled around the golf course and used the mountainside to connect valley-bottom habitat. Conversely, elk ( Cervus elaphus) densities were highest in the golf course. After restoration, wolves shifted most of their movement to the golf course corridor, whereas elk dispersed along the corridor and mountainside. When traveling through the study area, wolves selected for areas with high prey abundance, low elevations, and low levels of human activity. Corridor restoration increased the area of high quality habitat available to wolves and increased their access to elk and deer at low elevations. Our results corroborate other studies suggesting that wolves and elk quickly adapt to landscape changes and that corridor restoration can improve habitat quality and reduce habitat fragmentation.

Distribution of subadult grizzly bears in relation to human development in the Bow River Watershed, Alberta

We studied the relationship between human development and activity, and subadult grizzly bears (Ursus arctos) by comparing the distribution of radiotelemetry locations from 23 subadult versus 29 adult grizzly bears during 1994–2000 in the Bow River Watershed of Alberta, Canada. We used logistic regression to model significant differences in the spatial distribution of subadult and adult grizzly bears and analysis of variance (ANOVA) to test for significant differences in temporal distribution. Subadult bears were significantly closer to high-use roads and at lower elevations than adult bears. Both subadult and adult bears were significantly closer to high-use roads and at lower elevations during human inactive periods (1800–0700) than during human active periods (0700–1800). Subadult bears were closer to high-use roads regardless of the time of day, and therefore predisposed to greater encounter rates with humans. Consequently, subadult bears had a greater chance of becoming habituated to humans and of being killed or removed from the population by humans than adult bears. In areas with high levels of human use, we recommend that grizzly bear managers consider the population effects of these losses.