Levels Of Aflatoxin B1 Research Articles

Analysis and Health Risk Evaluation of Aflatoxin B1 Levels in Groundnut (Arachis hypogea ) and Maize (Zea mays ) Samples from Wukari, Nigeria

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is a secondary fungal metabolite which is considered a public health concern worldwide due to its genotoxicity and carcinogenicity. In this study, we evaluated the levels and potential health effects of AFB1 in Groundnut and Maize samples from Wukari, Nigeria. Ten samples (each) of maize and groundnuts were collected randomly from local markets and analysed for AFB1. Our findings revealed the presence of AFB1 in all the samples investigated with concentrations ranging between 7.79 – 14.08 μg/kg in groundnuts and 1.48 -15.50 μg/kg in maize samples. Overall, 90% of the analysed samples contained aflatoxin B1 above the allowed limit of 5 μg/kg. The assessment of chronic exposure and probalistic health risk from consumption of AFB1 in the investigated food samples was done via chronic daily intake (CDI) and margin of exposure (MOE) evaluations. Obtained CDI values for groundnut ranged between 14.96 – 28.74 ng·kg−1 BW day−1 for children and 3.20 – 6.15 ng·kg−1 BW day−1 for adults while for maize the values were in the range of 5.38 – 56.42 ng·kg−1 BW day−1 for children and 1.15 – 12.09 ng·kg−1 BW day−1 for adults. MOE values ranged between 3.01 – 31.60 for children and 14.06 – 147.83 for adults. The obtained MOE values are by far lower that the recommended ≥10,000 value thus indicating high carcinogenic risks to consumers of the food items. There is need to create more awareness and interventions on aflatoxin contamination of food sources in Nigeria.

Aflatoxigenic Aspergillus Modulates Aflatoxin-B1 Levels through an Antioxidative Mechanism.

Aflatoxins (AFs) are considered to play important functions in species of Aspergillus section Flavi including an antioxidative role, as a deterrent against fungivorous insects, and in antibiosis. Atoxigenic Flavi are known to degrade AF-B1 (B1). To better understand the purpose of AF degradation, we investigated the degradation of B1 and AF-G1 (G1) in an antioxidative role in Flavi. Atoxigenic and toxigenic Flavi were treated with artificial B1 and G1 with or without the antioxidant selenium (Se), which is expected to affect levels of AF. After incubations, AF levels were measured by HPLC. To estimate which population would likely be favoured between toxigenic and atoxigenic Flavi under Se, we investigated the fitness, by spore count, of the Flavi as a result of exposure to 0, 0.40, and 0.86 µg/g Se in 3%-sucrose cornmeal agar (3gCMA). Results showed that levels B1 in medium without Se were reduced in all isolates, while G1 did not significantly change. When the medium was treated with Se, toxigenic Flavi significantly digested less B1, while levels of G1 significantly increased. Se did not affect the digestion of B1 in atoxigenic Flavi, and also did not alter levels of G1. Furthermore, atoxigenic strains were significantly fitter than toxigenic strains at Se 0.86 µg/g 3gCMA. Findings show that while atoxigenic Flavi degraded B1, toxigenic Flavi modulated its levels through an antioxidative mechanism to levels less than they produced. Furthermore, B1 was preferred in the antioxidative role compared to G1 in the toxigenic isolates. The higher fitness of atoxigenic over toxigenic counterparts at a plant non-lethal dose of 0.86 µg/g would be a useful attribute for integration in the broader biocontrol prospects of toxigenic Flavi.

Occurrence of pre- and postharvest multi-mycotoxins in durum wheat grains collected in 2020 and 2021 in two climatic regions of Tunisia

ABSTRACT Twenty two mycotoxins in 136 durum wheat collected from Tunisia in 2020 and 2021 were investigated. Mycotoxins were analyzed by UHPLCMS/MS. In 2020, 60.9% of the samples were contaminated with Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and/or enniatin. Whereas, in 2021, 34.4% were contaminated by enniatins. AFB1 was detected only in 2020, in the continental region (6/46) and all samples exceeded limits. AFB1 was detected in stored wheat (24-37.8 µg/kg) but also in pre-stored wheat (17-28.4 µg/kg) and in one sample collected in the field (21 µg/kg). Enniatin A1, enniatin B and enniatin B1 were detected in wheat collected in the field (30-7684 µg/kg), pre-storage (42-1266 µg/kg) and storage (65.8-498.2 µg/kg) from the continental region also, in sample collected in pre-storage (31.3-1410 µg/kg) and at harvest (48- 1060 µg/kg). Samples had a water activity less than 0.7 and moisture content ranged between 09-14%. AFB1 level represent a health risk to the Tunisian consumers.

Wheat craft beer made from AFB1-contaminated wheat malt contains detectable mycotoxins, retains quality attributes, but differs in some fermentation metabolites

Levels of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) were measured during the production of wheat craft beer made with wheat malt contaminated with AFB1 (1.23 µg/kg). A wheat craft beer made with non-contaminated wheat malt was produced for comparison purposes. AFB1 was measured after mashing (malt after the mashing process), and in spent grain (spent grains are filtered to collect the wort - remaining sugar-rich liquid), sweet wort, green beer, spent yeast, and in beer. Physicochemical parameters (pH, titratable acidity, color parameters, total soluble solids), sugars, organic acids, alcohols, and phenolics were evaluated after mashing, and in sweet wort, green beer, and beer samples. Density and yeast counts were determined over 120 h of sweet wort fermentation every 24 h. The AFB1 levels in the final beer were 0.22 µg/L, while the spent grains and spent yeasts contained 0.71 ± 0.17 and 0.11 ± 0.03 µg/kg of AFB1, respectively. AFB1 contamination did not influence the final product's physicochemical parameters, density during fermentation, fructose, or glycerol content. Higher yeast counts were observed during the first 48 h of non-contaminated wheat craft beer fermentation, with higher ethanol, citric acid, and propionic acid contents and lower glucose, malic acid, and lactic acid contents compared with beer contaminated with AFB1. Non-contaminated wheat craft beer also had higher concentrations of gallic acid, chlorogenic acid, catechin, procyanidin A2, and procyanidin B1. AFB1 contamination of wheat malt may not affect basic quality parameters in wheat craft beer but can influence the final product's organic acid and phenolic contents. Our findings show that if wheat craft beer is made with contaminated malt, AFB1 can remain in the final product and may pose a risk to consumers.

Aflatoxin B1 Detoxification Potentials of Garlic, Ginger, Cardamom, Black Cumin, and Sautéing in Ground Spice Mix Red Pepper Products.

The uses of natural plant origin bioactive compounds are emerging as a promising strategy to detoxify aflatoxin B1 (AFB1). This study aimed to explore the potential of cooking, phytochemicals content, and antioxidant activities derived from garlic, ginger, cardamom, and black cumin to detoxify AFB1 on spice mix red pepper powder (berbere) and sauté. The effectiveness of the samples was analyzed for AFB1 detoxification potential through standard methods for the examination of food and food additives. These major spices showed an AFB1 level below the detection limit. After cooking in hot water for 7 min at 85 ℃, the experimental and commercial spice mix red pepper showed the maximum AFB1 detoxification (62.13% and 65.95%, respectively). Thus, mixing major spices to produce a spice mix red pepper powder had a positive effect on AFB1 detoxification in raw and cooked spice mix red pepper samples. Total phenolic content, total flavonoid content, 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl, ferric ion reducing antioxidant power, and ferrous ion chelating activity revealed good positive correlation with AFB1 detoxification at p < 0.05. The findings of this study could contribute to mitigation plans of AFB1 in spice-processing enterprises. Further study is required on the mechanism of AFB1 detoxification and safety of the detoxified products.

Determination of Aflatoxin B1 Contents in Peanut Protein Snack Bars

Peanuts, which are rich in nutrients, are used in many products and are often a primary ingredient of protein bars. However, when the necessary production and storage conditions are not met, mycotoxins, and particularly aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), which is the most toxic and most common mycotoxin, may pose a great risk. This study was undertaken to indirectly examine the appropriateness of storage conditions for peanut protein bars sold at different supply points and to identify the presence of AFB1 in compliance with the relevant legal limitations. In February and March 2022, different varieties of peanut protein bars without added sugars were obtained from local markets and nonmarket store chains (places where sports products, cosmetic products, and protein bars are sold) in Ankara, Turkey. AFB1 contents were analysed by the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) method. The limit imposed by the Turkish Food Codex regulation on contaminants is 5 ppb. While 38.3% of the samples were under that limit, 61.7% were above. No significant difference was found for the place of sale ( p = 0.542 and χ2 = 2.150), selling conditions ( p = 0.497 ), product ingredients, or remaining shelf-life ( p = 0.804 ) regarding the level of AFB1 in the samples. However, it was determined that samples with peanut percentages lower than 17.0% had higher amounts of AFB1 ( p &lt; 0.001 ), and other available ingredients might affect the AFB1 content of peanut bars. It was concluded that most samples (n = 37.0, p &lt; 0.001 , t = −8.607) posed a risk in terms of AFB1. Considering the shelf-life of such products and that peanuts can produce AFB1 during their shelf-life, it would be beneficial to monitor the frequency of supervision and prevent the sale of peanut bars with AFB1 contents higher than the limits.

Abstract 4221: Aflatoxin exposure in a population-based representative sample of adults in Mexico in 2018

Abstract Importance: Southern Mexico and Guatemala, together represent the region with the highest liver cancer burden in the Americas. There is a higher burden of liver cancer in rural regions in eastern and southern Mexico and remarkably there is an equal number of cases in men and women. Reasons for this increased burden are not clear, but previous studies of food samples have found that contamination of maize with aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), a potent liver carcinogen, is common in the region while HBV and HCV seroprevalence is less than 0.5%. Few examinations of AFB1 levels in persons have been conducted. Objective: To estimate the prevalence of exposure and circulating levels AFB1 in a representative sample of adults living in five regions across Mexico. Study Design: We randomly selected a subsample of 955 adults ≥40 years who participated in Mexico’s National Health and Nutrition Survey 2018 (ENSANUT). These residents were from five states in eastern and southern Mexico and all provided a venous blood sample. We assessed AFB1 levels as pg AFB1-lys/µL in serum using mass spectrometry. The limits of detection and quantification were both 0.010 pg/μL. Results: The mean age of participants was 56 years (± SD 11.7) and 54% were female. The overall prevalence of AFB1-lys detection was 92% (95% confidence intervals; 95%CI 88, 94%). The region with the lowest prevalence, 88% (95%CI 78, 94%), was Chiapas and the region with the highest prevalence was Veracruz 95% (95%CI 84, 98). Median AFB1 was 0.127 pg AFB1-lys/µL (interquartile range; IQR 0.054, 0.446) with a range from 0.066 (IQR, 0.033, 0.147) in Yucatán to 0.476 (IQR, 0.199, 1.355) in Veracruz. AFB1 exposure levels were higher in persons aged ≥60 years, men, and participants living in rural areas. We observed decreasing levels of AFB1 exposure with increasing socioeconomic status. Conclusions: In a representative sample of adults in eastern and southern Mexico we observed a high prevalence of exposure to AFB1. For certain regions, AFB1 levels are comparable to those in Guatemala. These results suggest that AFB1 may be related to the increased burden of liver cancer in eastern and southern Mexico. Citation Format: Adriana Monge, Katherine McGlynn, Luis Santiago-Ruiz, Jose Maria Remes-Troche, Karina Hernandez-Flores, Salvador Villapando-Hernandez, Martin Romero, John Groopman, Martin Lajous. Aflatoxin exposure in a population-based representative sample of adults in Mexico in 2018. [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the American Association for Cancer Research Annual Meeting 2023; Part 1 (Regular and Invited Abstracts); 2023 Apr 14-19; Orlando, FL. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2023;83(7_Suppl):Abstract nr 4221.

Prevalence of Aflatoxin B1 in marketed herbs and spices in Nairobi county Kenya: Consumer awareness, practices, and associated health risks

We conducted a study in Nairobi County to assess Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) levels in selected herbs and spices and to ascertain product use and consumer awareness of fungi and mycotoxin contamination. Descriptive statistical analysis of the survey data was performed using R-studio software version 1.4. Results revealed significant differences in consumers' preference for herbs and spices (P= 0.03671). Products consumed in less than one month were significant in predicting preference by customers (P= 0.0207). 65% of the respondents were unaware of mycotoxins in herbs and spices, and 80% had never attended mycotoxin training. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) method was used to analyze the samples for AFB1 contamination. Aflatoxin B1 was found in all of the samples and the concentration in spices ranged from 2.17ng/kg to 32.40ng/kg while in herbs the range was from 6.60ng/kg to 27.20 ng/kg.Considering the consumption data collected from our survey, the AFB1 daily intake for spices ranged between 0.83 and 11.78 ng/kg bw/day and in herbs it was between 0.6 and 6.88 ng/kg bw/day. The results indicate a high possible risk of exposure to mycotoxins; thus, more stringent measures must be taken for the prevention of mycobiota contamination in herbs and spices.

Isolation of Aspergillus flavus strains from Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea (L.) Verdcourt) seeds and screening for the production of aflatoxin B1 and B2

In Burkina Faso, Bambara groundnut is the second most important food legume after cowpea, especially in rural areas. However, this crop, due to certain conditions of production, storage or preservation is susceptible to be contaminated by potential mycotoxin producing fungi. The aim of this study was to evaluate the aflatoxinogenic capacity of Aspergillus flavus isolates isolated from Bambara groundnut seeds produced in Burkina Faso. Thus, 198 isolates of fungi belonging to section Flavi were isolated from 99 samples of Bambara groundnut seeds collected in the three agro-ecological zones of Burkina Faso. From the 198 isolates, 28 were identified as Aspergillus flavus. Then, we investigated their potential for aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and B2 (AFB2) production by growing them on rice at 25°C for 7 days. AFB1 and AFB2 were extracted and quantified by liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). All of the strains (28) produced AFB1 at concentrations ranging from 46.987 μg kg–1 to 1080.320 μg kg–1. However, AFB2 was produced by 26 strains with concentrations ranging from 47.200 μg kg–1 to 1760.240 μg kg–1. Globally, most of the tested strains produced higher levels of AFB1 than AFB2. The results obtained point out the risk associated with post-harvest fungi and the need for the development of storage technics to control them, for food security.

Seasonal and Geographical Impact on the Mycotoxigenicity of Aspergillus and Fusarium Species Isolated from Smallholder Dairy Cattle Feeds and Feedstuffs in Free State and Limpopo Provinces of South Africa.

This study evaluated the impact of seasonal and geographical variations on the toxigenicity of Aspergillus and Fusarium strains previously isolated from smallholder dairy cattle feeds and feedstuffs sampled during summer and winter in the Free State and Limpopo provinces of South Africa (SA). In total, 112 potential toxigenic fungal species were obtained and determined for their capability to produce mycotoxins on solid Czapek Yeast Extract Agar (CYA); followed by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) analysis. Our result revealed that 41.96% of the fungal species produced their respective mycotoxins, including aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), aflatoxin B2 (AFB2), and zearalenone (ZEN), with higher levels of AFB1 (0.22 to 1045.80 µg/kg) and AFB2 (0.11 to 3.44 µg/kg) produced by fungal species isolated from summer samples than those in winter [(0.69 to 14.44 µg/kg) and (0.21 to 2.26 µg/kg), respectively]. The same pattern was also observed for AFB1 and AFB2 in Limpopo (0.43 to 1045.80 µg/kg and 0.13 to 3.44 µg/kg) and Free State (0.22 to 576.14 µg/kg and 0.11 to 2.82 µg/kg), respectively. More so, ZEN concentrations in summer (7.75 to 97.18 µg/kg) were higher than in winter (5.20 to 15.90 µg/kg). A similar observation was also noted for ZEN in Limpopo (7.80 to 97.18 µg/kg) and Free State (5.20 to 15.90 µg/kg). These findings were confirmed via Welch and Brown-Forsythe tests with significantly (p ≤ 0.05) higher mycotoxin levels produced by fungal strains obtained in samples during summer than those in winter. In contrast, the concentrations of mycotoxins produced by the fungal species from both provinces were not significantly (p > 0.05) different.

The Expression of MMP1 and MMP7 in Mice Liver after Exposure to Aflatoxin B1 Using Immunohistochemistry Technique.

Mycotoxin is a class of poisonous secondary metabolites generated by filamentous fungi and found in agricultural commodities worldwide. Therefore, the current study aimed to investigate how aflatoxin B1 affected hepatic cellular architecture and Matrix metalloproteinase expression in particular (MMP1 and MMP7) in the livers of experimental mice (IHC). A total of sixteen mice (four groups) were studied after being given pure aflatoxin B1 (9mg/kg B.W., 6mg/kg B.W., and 3mg/kg B.W.) (produced from Aspergillus flavus) or a control group (not treated). MMP1 and MMP7 expressions were also measured using the MMP1 and MMP7 expression assays (IHC). The degree of liver damage is related to the AFB1 concentration and the duration of exposure. IHC reveals a considerable rise in MMP1 and MMP7 expression in the livers of mice given a maximum concentration of 90% ((9 mg/B.W.) pure AFB1), which approached the toxin's effect toxic dosage. MMP1 and MMP7 expression were also increased by AFB1 at dosages of 60 and 30% (6mg/BW and 3mg/B.W., respectively), although not to the same extent as 90%. MMP1 was significantly more expressed than MMP7 compared to control, and AFB1 at 90, 60, and 30% concentrations caused changes in hepatic cellular architecture, organization, and liver tissue damage and dramatically increased MMP1 and MMP7 production in hepatic tissue following treatment. Increased levels of pure aflatoxin B1 will harm liver tissue and MMP1 and MMP7 expression. MMP1 was more substantially expressed than MMP7.

Mycotoxin Contamination in Hazelnut: Current Status, Analytical Strategies, and Future Prospects.

Hazelnuts represent a potential source of mycotoxins that pose a public health issue due to their increasing consumption as food ingredients worldwide. Hazelnuts contamination by mycotoxins may derive from fungal infections occurring during fruit development, or in postharvest. The present review considers the available data on mycotoxins detected in hazelnuts, on fungal species reported as infecting hazelnut fruit, and general analytical approaches adopted for mycotoxin investigation. Prompted by the European safety regulation concerning hazelnuts, many analytical methods have focused on the determination of levels of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and total aflatoxins. An overview of the available data shows that a multiplicity of fungal species and further mycotoxins have been detected in hazelnuts, including anthraquinones, cyclodepsipeptides, ochratoxins, sterigmatocystins, trichothecenes, and more. Hence, the importance is highlighted in developing suitable methods for the concurrent detection of a broad spectrum of these mycotoxins. Moreover, control strategies to be employed before and after harvest in the aim of controlling the fungal contamination, and in reducing or inactivating mycotoxins in hazelnuts, are discussed.

Mutual effects on mycotoxin production during co-culture of ochratoxigenic and aflatoxigenic Aspergillus strains.

Mycotoxin co-occurrence compromises the safety of food crops worldwide. Environmental factors, as well as fungal interaction, can substantially influence the infectivity of mycotoxigenic fungi and their subsequent production of multi-mycotoxin. Here, we investigated the mutual effects of the co-culture of ochratoxigenic and aflatoxigenic Aspergillus strains on the co-production of ochratoxin A (OTA) and aflatoxin B1 (AFB1). Single cultures of ochratoxigenic A. carbonarius and A. alliaceus grew optimally at 25°C, whereas aflatoxigenic A. flavus grew optimally at 35°C. The maximum levels of OTA and AFB1 were achieved at 25°C, whereas mycotoxin production decreased at 35°C. During competitive growth of the ochratoxigenic and aflatoxigenic isolates, inhibition or stimulation of mycotoxin production was dependent on the fungal strain, temperature, and the ratio of the spore concentration. Aspergillus carbonarius and A. alliaceus generally produced OTA, with similar patterns of relative OTA levels at all temperatures. AFB1 production by A. flavus in the presence of ochratoxigenic Aspergillus species was inhibited at 25°C and stimulated at 35°C. These results indicated that the temperature, presence of other mycotoxigenic Aspergillus species, and ratio of the initial spore concentration significantly contributed to the co-production of OTA and AFB1.

EFFECT OF ECOSIL AND VITAMIN C PREPARATIONS ON THE ECONOMIC AND BIOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF YOUNG PIGS

The article’s authors argue that it is necessary to use adsorbents and antioxidant preparations in diets to level the negative factors of the impact of aflatoxin B1 on the processes of digestive metabolism and the productivity of young pigs when fattening on diets with a tolerant content of this mycotoxin. The research aimed to determine the effect of the preparation of Ecosil and vitamin C on the economic and biological characteristics of young pigs fed on diets with tolerant levels of aflatoxin B1. In the course of the study and based on experience, the authors found that the gilts of the 3rd experimental group had a higher growth intensity, which had an advantage over the animals of the control group in absolute and average daily gain by 10.5% (P&lt;0.05) when enriched compound feed with a mixture of Ecosil and vitamin C. The authors managed to achieve in animals of the 3rd experimental group a reduction in costs per 1 kg of absolute gain - EFU (energy feed unit) by 9.45% and digestible Protein by 9.48% against control due to improved detoxification of the studied toxin. The coefficient of dry matter digestibility in gilts of this group was higher than in control by 3.1% (P&gt;&lt;0.05); the organic matter was higher by 3.2% (P&gt;&lt;0.05); crude Protein was higher by 3.2% (P&gt;&lt;0.05); fiber is higher by 3.4% (P&gt;&lt;0.05) and NFE (nitrogen-free extract) by 2.7% with a decrease in the digestibility of crude fat by 2.8% (P&gt;&lt;0.05). The authors found that gilts of the 3rd experimental group, who consumed a mixture of tested feed additives per day in the accounting period of the study, deposited 24.86 g of nitrogen in the body, which is significantly (P&gt;&lt;0.05) more than the control analogs - by 2.85 g. In addition, the animals of the 3rd experimental group absorbed better calcium and phosphorus in the diet.&gt;˂0.05) when enriched compound feed with a mixture of Ecosil and vitamin C. The authors managed to achieve in animals of the 3rd experimental group a reduction in costs per 1 kg of absolute gain - EFU (energy feed unit) by 9.45% and digestible Protein by 9.48% against control due to improved detoxification of the studied toxin. The coefficient of dry matter digestibility in gilts of this group was higher than in control by 3.1% (P˂0.05); the organic matter was higher by 3.2% (P˂0.05); crude Protein was higher by 3.2% (P˂0.05); fiber is higher by 3.4% (P˂0.05) and NFE (nitrogen-free extract) by 2.7% with a decrease in the digestibility of crude fat by 2.8% (P˂0.05). The authors found that gilts of the 3rd experimental group, who consumed a mixture of tested feed additives per day in the accounting period of the study, deposited 24.86 g of nitrogen in the body, which is significantly (P˂0.05) more than the control analogs - by 2.85 g. In addition, the animals of the 3rd experimental group absorbed better calcium and phosphorus in the diet.

Effects of Aflatoxin B1 on growth performance, carcass traits, organ index, blood biochemistry and oxidative status in Chinese yellow chickens.

In this study, the effects of different levels of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) on the growth performance, carcass traits, organ index, blood biochemistry, and antioxidant capacity of yellow-feathered broilers were investigated to provide a reference for the application of AFB1-containing feed ingredients. In this test, yellow-feathered broilers were chosen as the research objects and divided into five treatment groups, with seven replicates in each group and 75 broilers in each replicate. The AFB1 concentration in the diets of groups 1 to 5 were 1.5 μg/kg, 15 μg/kg, 30 μg/kg, 45 μg/kg, and 60 μg/kg, respectively. The results showed that when dietary AFB1 levels were greater than 45 μg/kg, the feed conversion ratios of broilers of 1-21, 22-42, and 43-63 days of age increased (P<0.05). When dietary AFB1 levels were 30 μg/kg, liver glutathione peroxidase (GPx) activity was decreased (P<0.05), and serum transaminase (AST) activity was increased (P<0.05). Overall, dietary AFB1 levels had negative effects on growth performance, antioxidant capacity, blood biochemistry, and liver metabolism in yellow-feathered broilers. Based on using growth performance as the effect index, AFB1 levels in the diets of yellow-feathered broilers should not exceed 45 μg/kg. Based on using antioxidant capacity, liver function, and blood biochemistry as effect indexes, AFB1 levels in the diets of yellow-feathered broilers should not exceed 30 μg/kg.

Extraction and determination of aflatoxin B1 in cereal samples using pH-switchable hydrophobic deep eutectic solvents followed by HPLC-FL analysis.

A quick, simple and environmentally friendly liquid phase microextraction (LPME) sample pretreatment procedure was proposed based on pH-switchable hydrophobic deep eutectic solvents (HDESs) and high performance liquid chromatography coupled with a fluorescence detector (HPLC-FL). This method was used for the quantitative study of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and applied to eight widely consumed cereal samples. In this method, six different DESs were synthesized and then their pH-switchability was investigated. DESs that could be switched with pH were employed for separation and preconcentration of AFB1 in cereal samples. In this method, dispersing the extractant phase in the aqueous solution and subsequent phase separation are performed only by changing the pH. Important parameters affecting extraction, such as the type of DES and its volume, concentration of KOH, volume of HCL, effect of salt and extraction time were investigated and optimum conditions were obtained. Under the optimum conditions, relative standard deviation (RSD) values for intra-day and inter-day of the method based on seven replicate measurements of 5.0 μg kg-1 of AFB1 in cereal samples were 3.3 and 5.2%, respectively. The calibration graphs were linear in the range of 0.007-20 μg kg-1 and limit of detection (LOD) was 0.002 μg kg-1. The relative recoveries of real cereal samples which have been spiked with different levels of AFB1 were 90.8-107.5%.

Plasma-activated water application for detoxification of aflatoxin B1, ochratoxin A, and fumonisin B1 in poultry feeds.

Plasma-activated water (PAW) is considered one of the emerging strategies that has been highlighted recently in the food industry for microbial decontamination and mycotoxin detoxification, due to its unique provisional characteristics. The effectiveness of PAW for aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), ochratoxin A (OTA), and fumonisin B1 (FB1) detoxification in naturally contaminated poultry feeds with its impacts on the feed quality were inspected. PAW-30 and PAW-60 were utilized for feed treatment for six time durations (5, 10, 15, 20, 40, and 60 minutes) each. The alterations in the physicochemical properties of PAW after different time durations of plasma inducement and treatment with and without feed samples were monitored. Competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was employed for estimation of mycotoxin levels and high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) was utilized for results confirmation. Feed composition analyses with peroxide values (PVs) estimation were implemented according to standard analytical methods. The physicochemical properties of PAW showed a significant decrease (p < 0.05) in pH value from 6.72 to 2.68 and a significant increase (p < 0.05) in oxidation-reduction potential (ORP), electrical conductivity (EC), and temperature from 235 mV, 5.1 μS/cm, and 20.5°C to 499.2 mV, 727.6 μS/cm, and 26.8°C, respectively, after 60 minutes of plasma inducement in a time-dependent manner. The mycotoxins decay kinetics after PAW application were illustrated. Mycotoxins degradation efficiency significantly increased (p < 0.05) with increasing water activation time. A significant increase (p < 0.05) in AFB1, OTA, and FB1 degradation levels was reported mainly during the first 10 minutes of treatment for AFB1 and the first 15 minutes for OTA and FB1 to record values of 28.33%, 32.14%, and 34.62% and 33.80%, 40.70%, and 43.38% after 60 minutes of feed exposure to PAW-30 and PAW-60, respectively. Significant differences (p < 0.05) between examined mycotoxins in their degradation levels were recorded, where FB1 exhibited the highest degradation levels. Generally, feed compositions were slightly affected by PAW and fats were still having good quality. The possibility of PAW for degrading more than a quarter to a third of the original quantity of targeted mycotoxins in poultry feeds after 10 minutes of treatment with a slight effect on feed quality.

Safety evaluation and application of lactic acid bacteria and yeast strains isolated from Sichuan broad bean paste.

Broad bean paste is one of the most popular characteristic traditional fermented bean products in China, which is prepared by mixed fermentation of a variety of microorganisms, among which lactic acid bacteria and yeast played an important role in the improvement of the fermented broad bean paste quality. However, the traditional open-air fermentation of broad bean paste brought some risks of harmful microorganisms. In this study, the safety and fermentation ability of lactic acid bacteria and yeast strains isolated from traditional broad bean paste was evaluated. The results showed that the protease activity of the strain Lactobacillus plantarum DPUL-J5 (366.73 ± 9.00 U/L) and Pichia kudriavzevii DPUY-J5 (237.18 ± 10.93 U/L) were the highest. Both strains produced little biogenic amines, and did not exhibit α-hemolytic activity or antibiotic resistance for some of the antibiotics most used in human medicine. Furthermore, the broad bean paste fermentation involving DPUL-J5 and DPUY-J5 was beneficial for accumulating higher total acid (1.69 ± 0.01 g/100 g), amino-acid nitrogen (0.85 ± 0.03 g/100 g), and more volatile flavor compounds, meanwhile, reducing the levels of biogenic amines and aflatoxin B1. Therefore, this study provided a new strategy to improve the safety and quality of traditional broad bean paste.

TRENDS OF AFLATOXIN IN LIVESTOCK FEED AND VARIOUS FEED INGREDIENTS IN PAKISTAN

Objective of current study was to determine aflatoxin B1 level in cotton see cake (CSL) rape seed cake (RSC), wheat bran (WB) and compound feed (CF) in 10 districts of Punjab, Pakistan namely Bahawalnagar, Bhakkar, Jhang, Kasur, Khanewal, Layyah, Multan, Muzaffargarh, Rahim Yar Khan and Rajanpur. For this purpose samples of CSC (n=375), RSC (n=100), WB (n=75), CF (n=100) were analyzed at Nutrition Division of Buffalo Research Institute, Pattoki District Kasur. Different samples were extracted, filtered and further screened by using commercially available ELISA Romer kit. The data were analyzed by one-way analysis of variance technique using SPSS software. Highest value of aflatoxin in CSC, RSC, WB and CF was found in districts; Bahawalnagar, Sialkot,Muzaffargarh and Bahawalnagar respectively, while its lowest value in CSC, RSC, WB and CF was found in Muzaffargarh, Multan, Bahawalnagar and Rahim Yar Khan, respectively. Highest infected samples were found in compound feed (21%) followed by cotton seed cake (11.93%), wheat bran (11.71%) and rape seed cake (11.11%) by percentage formula. Based upon the result of recent study toxin binders should be added in processed feed and storage condition of feed ingredients must be improved to minimize the risk of aflatoxicosis.

Aflatoxin B1 Binding by Lactic Acid Bacteria in Protein-Rich Plant Material Fermentation

At the same time as the strong ambition to improve sustainability and the healthiness of food systems through a transition towards a more plant-based diet, climate change is increasing the risk of plant diseases. Consequently, mycotoxigenic fungi have become a food safety issue of major importance. A variety of strategies to suppress fungal growth in the pre- and postharvest stages of plant production have been established, and the potential of various biological methods has been assessed to ensure food safety. Of the various food microbes, lactic acid bacteria are known for their capacity to suppress the growth of toxigenic fungi and adsorb free mycotoxins. The current study showed that lactic acid fermentation could mitigate aflatoxin risk in plant-based foods through a reduction in free aflatoxin B1. In line with previous studies, in which Lactiplantibacillus plantarum (formerly Lactobacillus plantarum) was shown to reduce the level of free aflatoxin B1 in vitro, L. plantarum was shown to achieve up to a 90% reduction in free aflatoxin B1 in food fermentation. The results showed that traditional lactic acid fermentation, using L. plantarum as the starter strain, could be applied to mitigate aflatoxin B1 contamination risk in proteinaceous plant-based foodstuffs. In a wider context, fermentation using selected strains of lactic acid bacteria as starters could also enhance the availability of nutritious and safer food in terms of mycotoxin risk in low-income countries.