Level Off Research Articles

The Accuracy Assessment of Devices Used for Distance Measuring in Dynamic Vehicle Tests

Abstract The paper presented deals with the accuracy of three selected devices based on acceleration measurement: accelerometer – XL meter, the global position measurement device by VBox and the constructed 5th wheel, which allows a very accurate measurement of distance along with speed and acceleration of the vehicle. The accuracy of recordings was tested during various driving conditions when all the three measuring devices were attached to the vehicle. Measurements showed that GPS-based measuring devices level off and even surpass accelerometers when used in locations with a good view of the sky. The 5th wheel provided the most representative results, as the difference between average and real standard deviations of the measured distance were 0.78%, 1.38%, 3.48% for the 5th wheel, VBox GPS and XL meter, respectively. The accuracy of the 5th wheel and VBox can be considered very high when taking into account the fact that dynamic actions were monitored. The paper purpose is to point out the significance of measuring device selection in assessing the distance travelled by the vehicle.

Towards a deep understanding of oxidation in the material removal of GCr15 bearing steel during chemical mechanical polishing

Oxidation is critical to metal chemical mechanical polishing (CMP). In this work, the role of oxidation in the material removal of GCr15 bearing steel during CMP was thoroughly investigated. Six representative oxidizers were selected to acquire the material removal rate (MRR) data. There are three distinct MRR trends. The oxidizers can be divided into three categories based on the MRR and surface composition results. For the first, with the concentration of H2O2 or KIO3 increasing, the MRR first sharply increases, then decreases and stabilizes; For the second, as the concentration of KClO3 or NaClO increases, the MRR first increases and then levels off; For the third, with the concentration of K2S2O8 or Fe(NO3)3 increasing, the MRR almost linearly increases. According to the reaction kinetics and steady state, a fundamental MRR model considering iron oxidation and removal processes was built, and then applied to the three categories of oxidizers combined with the specific oxidation paths. The fitting results agree with the MRR data. Moreover, the key to realizing efficient removal of GCr15 steel is Fe2+ for H2O2, KIO3, KClO3 and NaClO, while Fe3O4 for K2S2O8 and Fe(NO3)3. The findings can deepen the understanding of oxidation in metal CMP.

The Transformative Impacts of Green Finance Governance on Construction-Related CO2 Emissions

In the context of the commitment to peak carbon emissions by 2030, specific sectors in China should take responsibility to change their energy consumption patterns. In China and across the globe, the construction sector is a major source of carbon dioxide emissions, as well as an indicator of economic growth and structural transformation. In this study, we examine panel data for 30 provinces or regions from 2008 to 2019 to dissect which macro-factors contribute to growth in carbon emissions, and which will lead to carbon emission reductions. Derived by the entropy method, the Green Finance Index is a comprehensive environmental regulation index related to reduction in emissions in each province. It presents an N shape for construction emissions, and provinces are currently striving to cross the first inflection point, which will help to curb emissions. Judging from the combined effects of this and other structural factors, the Green Finance Index can promote the decarbonization of production by playing the role of guiding and screening capital allocation. Population expansion, income levels, and financial development initially stimulate demand for construction, but their effects eventually level off. This paper can serve as a reference for developing countries that are experiencing industrialization and urbanization processes and handling gas discharge pressure at the same time.

Reduction of FeO in Molten Slag by Solid Carbonaceous Materials for HIsarna Alternative Ironmaking Process

To investigate the use of biomass in the novel HIsarna technology, the reduction of FeO in the slag by chars produced from thermal coal (TC), charcoal (CC), and Bana grass char (BGC) was studied. A drop tube furnace coupled with a quadrupole mass spectrometer (DTF-QMS) was employed to study the injection of chars into pre-melted slag in the temperature range between 1450 °C and 1525 °C. The reduction rate was calculated from evolved gases and the extent of FeO reduction was confirmed by wavelength-dispersive X-ray fluorescence (WDXRF). The FeO reduction proceeds through two stages, starting with a rapid reduction, which is dependent on the carbon type, and followed by gradual leveling off. The reduction rate with the charcoal char (CC) was the highest, over 60 pct reduction was achieved in the first 500 seconds at 1500 °C, while ~ 50 and 40 pct achieved with TC and BGC chars, respectively, for the same reaction time. The kinetic analysis suggests that the first and second stages of the reaction can be described by the second-order (F2) and three-dimensional diffusion (D3) models, respectively. The apparent activation energy values for the first stage were 290, 229 and 267 kJ/mol for reactions with TC, CC and BGC chars, while 265, 369, and 282 kJ/mol were obtained for the second stage. Based on the experimental data and kinetic results, it can be concluded that the first stage is controlled by chemical reactions on the carbon surface, and the second stage is influenced by a mixed-controlling mechanism.

Split-belt walking: An experience that is hard to forget

BackgroundThe common paradigm to study the adaptability of human gait is split-belt walking. Short-term savings (minutes to days) of split-belt adaptation have been widely studied to gain knowledge in locomotor learning but reports on long-term savings are limited. Here, we studied whether after a prolonged inter-exposure interval (three weeks), the newly acquired locomotor pattern is subject to forgetting or that the pattern is saved in long-term locomotor memory. Research QuestionCan savings of adaptation to split-belt walking remain after a prolonged inter-exposure interval of three weeks? MethodsFourteen healthy adults participated in a single ten-minute adaptation session to split-belt walking and five-minute washout to tied-belt walking. They received no training after the first exposure and returned to the laboratory exactly three weeks later for the second exposure. To identify the adaptation trends and quantify saving parameters we used Singular Spectrum Analysis, a non-parametric, data-driven approach. We identified trends in step length asymmetry and double support asymmetry, and calculated the adaptation volume (reduction in asymmetry over the course of adaptation), and the plateau time (time required for the trend to level off). ResultsAt the second exposure after three weeks, we found substantial savings in adaptation for step length asymmetry volume (61.6–67.6% decrease) and plateau time (76.3 % decrease). No differences were found during washout or in double support asymmetry. SignificanceThis study shows that able-bodied individuals retain savings of split-belt adaptation over a three-week period, which indicates that only naïve split-belt walkers should be included in split-belt adaptation studies, as previous experience to split-belt walking will not be washed out, even after a prolonged period. In future research, these results can be compared with long-term savings in patient groups, to gain insight into factors underlying (un)successful gait training in rehabilitation.

Interscale transfer of turbulent energy in grid-generated turbulence with low Reynolds numbers

Direct numerical simulations are performed for grid-generated turbulence with low Reynolds numbers to study the interscale transfer of turbulent energy. The Reynolds numbers based on the uniform velocity and grid mesh size, M, are set to ReM=5000, 9000, and 15000. The results show that, for ReM=9000 and ReM=15000, the turbulent dissipation constant increases in the upstream region but it becomes nearly constant in the region of x/M>15. In contrast, for ReM=5000, it continues to increase and do not level off even in the downstream region. Scale-by-scale analysis using the Karman–Howarth–Monin–Hill equation indicates that, the non-linear transfer term balances with the dissipation term for all the cases. Instead, it is found that, in the downstream region of the ReM=5000 case, where the turbulent Reynolds number becomes Reλ<25, the contribution of the advection term varies depending on the streamwise positions. Further analysis for the one-point statistics indicates that, in such conditions, the coherences among the advection term, dissipation term, and diffusion term become small at small scales, while they are generally large in the other cases including the upstream region for ReM=5000. These indicate that energy cascade mechanism in the downstream region for ReM=5000 is different from the cases of 30<Reλ<60, even though both of them are generally considered as small Reλ, and it is caused by the increase of the dissipation scale range appearing in the transition period to the final decay.

Dynamic confinement of SAPO-17 cages on the selectivity control of syngas conversion.

The OXZEO (oxide−zeolite) bifunctional catalyst concept has enabled selective syngas conversion to a series of value-added chemicals and fuels such as light olefins, aromatics and gasoline. Herein we report for the first time a dynamic confinement of SAPO-17 cages on the selectivity control of syngas conversion observed during an induction period. Structured illumination microscopy, intelligent gravimetric analysis, UV-Raman, X-ray diffraction, thermogravimetry and gas chromatography-mass spectrometer analysis indicate that this is attributed to the evolution of carbonaceous species as the reaction proceeds, which gradually reduces the effective space inside the cage. Consequently, the diffusion of molecules is hindered and the hindering is much more prominent for larger molecules such as C4+. As a result, the selectivity of ethylene is enhanced whereas that of C4+ is suppressed. Beyond the induction period, the product selectivity levels off. For instance, ethylene selectivity levels off at 44% and propylene selectivity at 31%, as well as CO conversion at 27%. The findings here bring a new fundamental understanding that will guide further development of selective catalysts for olefin synthesis based on the OXZEO concept.

Forecasting Chinese provincial carbon emissions using a novel grey prediction model considering spatial correlation

In response to the errors caused by the uniform background value coefficients in the traditional grey model and the lack of analysis ability of panel data, this study proposes a two-stage background value calculation method and introduces a spatial weight matrix to employ the spatial correlation of variables in the grey model, creating a spatial grey model SGM(1,1,m) and realizing the modeling of spatial data by a grey model. The validity of the SGM(1,1,m) model was tested using carbon emission data from 30 provinces in China, and the carbon emissions of these provinces are predicted from 2020 to 2025. Conclusions are drawn as follows. First, the two-stage background value optimization mode and the addition of spatial overflow term in the model are reasonable, and the SGM(1,1,m) model improves the modeling performance in a certain sense compared with the GM(1,1) model while realizing regional association modeling. Second, the SGM(1,1,m) model has some formal similarities with the grey multivariate model, but while both are similar in terms of modeling requirements, the modeling purposes or economic meanings represented are different and should not be confused. Third, the SGM(1,1,m) model can achieve modeling predictions while providing a simple analysis of the spatial correlation of carbon emissions. Fourth, the prediction results present that the rise of carbon emissions in eastern China will level off, but the rise of carbon emissions in the central and western China will accelerate, which is largely because of the faster rise of carbon emissions in key provinces such as Shaanxi, Gansu, Ningxia, and Inner Mongolia.

Numerical Investigations on Stresses and Temperature Development of Tool Dies during Hot Forging

Hot-forming tools are subjected to high thermal and mechanical stresses during their application. Therefore, a suitable design of the tool die is important to ensure a long tool life. For this purpose, numerical simulations can be used to calculate the occurring stresses and the temperature development in the tools during the course of a stroke or over several forging cycles. The aim of this research is to investigate the effect of different radii on the resulting stresses in the lower die of the forming tools. Furthermore, the temperature evolution over several cycles is analysed to determine their effect on the temperature. When investigating the stress, it was found that a larger radius leads to a reduction in stresses. In addition, it could be numerically proven that the base temperature of the die levels off after a certain number of cycles. These findings will be used in further research dealing with the service life calculation of dies subjected to thermo-mechanical alternating stresses.

Examination of Forest Steppe Species in the Case of Areas Where Traditional Cultivation Was Abandoned

The thousands of kilometers of forest steppes in Eurasia belong to the most threatened ecosystems thanks to habitat loss. We have limited knowledge on the recolonization ability of forest steppe species to date, which is the reason we examined the textural and structural changes in these species during secondary succession in areas of different former land use. The species number, cover, and diversity of forest steppe species, especially those of the Festuco-Brometea group, became significant for all three types in the oldest fallows. The number and proportion of forest steppe species have been steadily increasing in abandoned vineyards and arable land, indicating that forest steppe species are able to rapidly recolonize. The increase in the number and cover of forest steppe species in abandoned grasslands reveals that the replacement of the species pool of these grasslands is not necessarily accompanied by degradation, but also by the appearance and spread of valuable natural species if the habitat is sufficiently patchy. The proportions of habitat categories level off in abandoned vineyards and arable land as abandonment progresses. The cover rates of disturbed habitats species were negligible for all three types for the third decade after abandonment, indicating a change in the quality of the species pool.

Performance Limits of 433 MHz Quarter-wave Monopole Antennas due to Grounding Dimension and Conductivity

Among antennas for Industrial, Scientific and Medical (ISM band) applications at 433 MHz, quarter-wave monopole is a reasonably good trade-off between size, gain, and cost. The electrical performance of the monopole is largely dependent on the quality of the ground plane (size and conductivity), which exhibits a practical limit on the achievable gain as most industrial user environments can provide only a finite ground plane of finite electrical conductivity. Establishing traceability in understanding the performance degradation due to such limits due to the grounding dimension and conductivity is becoming mandatory. To this end, this work leverages universal MATLAB in place of off-the-shelf software (HFSS or CST) for the quarter-wave monopole antenna simulation at 433 MHz parametrised with the ground plane’s dimension with respect to the wavelength (λ). Results indicate that by enlarging the ground plane’s size from 0.14 λ to 14 λ, the gain (directivity for PEC) from the 3D radiation pattern rises from 1.79 dBi, then starts levelling off at 6.7 dBi (5.78 λ), until saturating at 7.49 dBi (13 λ). The radiation efficiency and gain of various grounding conductivity scenarios (e.g., gold, aluminium, steel) are also quantified to inform antenna designers and engineers for commercial, industrial, defence and space applications.

Decreasing the degree of polymerization of microcrystalline cellulose by mechanical impact and acid hydrolysis

Depolymerization of cellulose is often used as a (pre)treatment protocol within the catalytic valorization strategies of cellulose. Typical depolymerization protocols yield polymerization degrees above 70 anhydroglucose units (AGU). However, shorter cellulose fibers are of interest in the search for accessible dietary fiber additives or renewable materials with distinct mechanical properties (bio-composites). In this work, short-polymer microcrystalline celluloses (SMCC) with an average polymerization degree between 29 and 70 AGU were produced with material yields of 95 % and above by combining a planetary ball mill pretreatment with mild acid hydrolysis. By first decreasing the levelling–off degree of polymerization (LODP) with an intensive ball mill treatment, a mild acid hydrolysis protocol was sufficient to ensure high yields of SMCC. Furthermore, the desired polymerization degree could be obtained by tuning the process parameters.

SN 2009ip after a decade: the luminous blue variable progenitor is now gone

ABSTRACT We present new Hubble Space Telescope (HST) imaging photometry for the site of the Type IIn supernova (SN) 2009ip taken almost a decade after explosion. The optical source has continued to fade steadily since the SN-like event in 2012. In the F606W filter, which was also used to detect its luminous blue variable (LBV) progenitor 13 yr before the SN, the source at the position of SN 2009ip is now 1.2 mag fainter than that quiescent progenitor. It is 6–7 mag fainter than the pre-SN outbursts in 2009–2011. This definitively rules out a prediction that the source would return to its previous state after surviving the 2012 event. Instead, the late-time fading matches expectations for a terminal explosion. The source fades at a similar rate in all visual-wavelength filters without significant colour changes, therefore also ruling out the hypothesis of a luminous dust-obscured survivor or transition to a hotter post-LBV survivor. The late-time continuum with steady colour and strong Hα emission detected in a narrow F657N filter are, however, entirely expected for ongoing shock interaction with circumstellar material in a decade-old core-collapse SN. Interestingly, the ultraviolet flux has stayed nearly constant since 2015, supporting previous conjectures that the F275W light traces main-sequence OB stars in an underlying young star cluster. We expect that the visual-wavelength continuum will eventually level off, tracing this cluster light. Without any additional outbursts, it seems prudent to consider the 2012 event as a terminal SN explosion, and we discuss plausible scenarios.

Diffusion of Legal Innovations

The law is permanently under construction. Most legal change is intentional. A legislator, a court, or one of the law's subjects hopes to better achieve a purpose by switching from one rule, one interpretation, or one remedy to the next. Yet empirically, legal innovation tends to be a process that takes time. At the macro level, the diffusion path is often S shaped: It does not start immediately and levels off after a while. This article links legal innovation to diffusion research and discusses micro processes that have the potential to generate the observed diffusion paths.

Abstract CT149: A phase 1/2a first-in-human study of AFM24, a CD16A/epidermal growth factor (EGFR) bispecific Innate Cell Engager (ICE®), in patients with locally advanced or metastatic EGFR-expressing solid tumors: Preliminary findings from the dose-escalation phase

Abstract AFM24 is a first-in-class, tetravalent, bispecific ICE® that binds to EGFR on tumor cells and CD16A on natural killer (NK) cells and macrophages, inducing antibody-mediated cytotoxicity and antibody-mediated phagocytosis, respectively. Preclinical in vitro and in vivo studies have demonstrated AFM24 can induce killing of EGFR+ solid tumor cell lines, independently of EGFR mutational status; toxicology testing in cynomolgus monkeys revealed a favorable safety profile. An ongoing phase 1/2a study (NCT04259450) is evaluating the safety, efficacy, immunogenicity, pharmacokinetic (PK) and pharmacodynamic responses of AFM24 in patients with locally advanced or metastatic, treatment refractory solid tumors that are known to express EGFR. AFM24 is administered intravenously Q1W until disease progression, intolerable toxicity, investigator’s discretion or patient withdrawal. As of 29 Oct 2021, 29 patients (median [range] age 58 [29-81] years; number of prior therapies 4 [2-8]), predominantly with colorectal- (CRC, 16/29; 10 KRAS mutant) and non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC, 7/29; 6 EGFR mutant), were treated with AFM24 across six dose levels (14-480 mg flat). The median number of AFM24 doses administered was 8, range 1-29. The most frequently reported (≥20% of patients) AFM24-related treatment-emergent adverse events (TEAEs) were infusion-related reactions (IRR, 20/29), nausea (7/29) and headache (6/29). There were no on-study deaths; two patients had serious TEAEs (one Grade 3 IRR and one Grade 2 hypoxia) and five patients had transient and reversible Grade 3-4 TEAEs (two Grade 3 IRRs, one Grade 3 hypertension, three ≥Grade 3 lymphocytopenia) attributed to AFM24, respectively. There was one dose-limiting toxicity at 40 mg (Grade 3 IRR). Best objective response was stable disease in 8/24 response-evaluable patients; three patients had stable disease for ≥4 months (two CRC, one NSCLC). Dose-proportional PK between 320 and 480 mg indicated saturation of target-mediated elimination. CD16A receptor occupancy (CD16ARO) on circulating blood cells was correlated with exposure and seemed to level off at 480 mg. Estimated intra-tumoral AFM24 concentrations and CD16ARO were in the range associated with maximum tumor cell killing in vitro. TNF-α, IFN-γ and IL-10 increased over time; other cytokines including IL-6 showed only transient increases. AFM24 has a well-managed safety profile and shows pharmacodynamic activity at doses of 320-480 mg. In parallel to continued dose escalation, expansion in disease specific cohorts has been launched at 480 mg. Other studies are evaluating AFM24 in combination with atezolizumab, and in combination with autologous NK cells holding the potential to activate the innate immune response to fight EGFR+ cancer. Citation Format: Anthony El-Khoueiry, Juanita Lopez, Omar Saavedra, Mark Awad, Jacob Thomas, Crescens Tiu, Elena Garralda, Bettina Rehbein, Gabriele Hintzen, Kerstin Pietzko, Christa Raab, Erich Rajkovic, Paulien Ravenstijn, Michael Emig. A phase 1/2a first-in-human study of AFM24, a CD16A/epidermal growth factor (EGFR) bispecific Innate Cell Engager (ICE®), in patients with locally advanced or metastatic EGFR-expressing solid tumors: Preliminary findings from the dose-escalation phase [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the American Association for Cancer Research Annual Meeting 2022; 2022 Apr 8-13. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2022;82(12_Suppl):Abstract nr CT149.

Determination of Optimal Elevation of Silicon Bifacial Solar Panel

In this paper, bifacial PV module was characterized to investigate the optimum height and tilt angle of bifacial solar cells in Baghdad location. The module elevation is a key factor in bifacial PVs because of the effect of self-shading on the amount of diffuse and albedo that can hit the rear side of the panel. This elevation is a function of latitude, daylight time, and season, which is never been determined before in Baghdad location up to our knowledge. Various heights above the ground were used (100, 120, 140, and 160cm), and for each height several tilt angles were taken (0°, 12°, 30°, 49°, and 70°). Data were collected in several days of November, 2020. PV parameters were characterized at each condition. Rated power of the panel showed an increase when elevation increases from 100cm to 120cm then tends to level off at 140cm and 160cm heights. This result suggests that the optimal elevation of a bifacial PV panel in Baghdad city location is 120cm. The results also showed that 49° gives the best photovoltaic performance. This can be elucidated by the seasonal effect. Since the measurements were done in winter, the optimal tilt angle should be 49° according to Baghdad latitude.

Study on Factors Influencing Film Formation of Grease and Calculation Model for Grease Film Thickness

The grease film thickness was measured in fully flooded elastohydrodynamic lubrication, and the influence of rolling speed, load, consistency, base oil type and thickener type on grease film thickness was analyzed. A new calculation model for grease film thickness was established. The results show that the grease film thickness increases with the increasing rolling speed, and then levels off with the amount of thickener in the contact region reaching an equilibrium. The degree of grease film enhancement comparing to its base oil will depend on thickener type and consistency. The larger the atmospheric viscosity and pressure-viscosity coefficient of the base oil, the higher the film thickness of the greases with the same thickener. The grease film thicknesses with the same base oil and different thickeners are determined by the size of thickener particles at the same consistency or concentration. The larger the consistence of the grease, the larger the effective viscosity of the grease at the contact and the thicker the grease film thickness whose base oil has the same type and viscosity along with the same type of thickener. The calculated values by the new model are in good agreement with the measured values.

Space and time correlations for diffusion models with prompt and delayed birth-and-death events.

Understanding the statistical properties of a collection of individuals subject to random displacements and birth-and-death events is key to several applications in physics and life sciences, encompassing the diagnostic of nuclear reactors and the analysis of epidemic patterns. Previous investigations of the critical regime, where births and deaths balance on average, have shown that highly non-Poissonian fluctuations might occur in the population, leading to spontaneous spatial clustering, and eventually to a "critical catastrophe," where fluctuations can result in the extinction of the population. A milder behavior is observed when the population size is kept constant: the fluctuations asymptotically level off and the critical catastrophe is averted. In this paper, we extend these results by considering the broader class of models with prompt and delayed birth-and-death events, which mimic the presence of precursors in nuclear reactor physics or incubation in epidemics. We consider models with and without population control mechanisms. Analytical or semi-analytical results for the density, the two-point correlation function, and the mean-squared pair distance will be derived and compared with Monte Carlo simulations, which will be used as a reference.

Gas-solid hydrodynamics in a stator-rotor vortex chamber reactor

The gas–solid vortex reactor (GSVR) has enormous process intensification potential. However the huge gas consumption can be a serious disadvantage for the GSVR in some applications such as fast pyrolysis. In this work, we demonstrate a recent novel design, where a stator-rotor vortex chamber (STARVOC) is driven by the fluid’s kinetic energy, to decouple the solids bed rotation and gas. Gas-solid fluidization by using air and monosized aluminum balls was performed to investigate the hydrodynamics. A constructed fluidization flow regime map for a fixed solids loading of 100 g shows that the bed can only be fluidized for a rotation speed between 200 and 400 RPM. Below 200 RPM, particles settle down on the bottom plate and cannot form a stable bed due to inertia and friction. Above 400 RPM, the bed cannot be fluidized with superficial velocities up to 1.8 m/s (air flow rate of 90 Nm3/h). The bed thickness shows some non-uniformities, being smaller at the top of the bed than at the bottom counterpart. However by increasing the air flow rate or rotation speed the axial nonuniformity can be resolved. The bed pressure drop first increases with increasing gas flow rate and then levels off, showing similar characteristics as conventional fluidized beds. Theoretical pressure drops calculated from mathematical models such as Kao et al. model agree well with experimental measurements. Particle velocity discrepancies between the top and bottom particles reveal that the impact of gravity cannot be completely neglected. Design guidelines and possible applications for further development of STARVOC concept are proposed based on fundamental data provided in this work.

An assessment on the effects of road constructions on ecological biodiversity and livelihood in Bo City, Southern Sierra Leone

Ecological effects on roads construction include physical disturbance, habitats loss, extinction of populations of species near road edges, mortality of wildlife that are using roads edges as habitat, and the scattering of wildlife (including invasive species and alien species) along road network. In other words, roads construction contributes essentially to the socio-economic and cultural development of rural communities. Improved road infrastructure facilitates rural population to find work in and beyond their respective communities. Similarly, the city of Bo has been experiencing 21st Century massive asphalt roads construction. This research is to assess the effects of road construction on ecological biodiversity on the livelihood of the people in Bo City. Biodiversity is increasingly threatened by rapid infrastructure expansion and its associated ecological effects. Infrastructure such as roads, alter ecological conditions by cutting through habitats and consequently reducing populations of many wildlife species. As a result local species in abundance decline in the nearness of infrastructure and increase with distance from the infrastructure until leveling off at a certain threshold distance. This decrease in population density varies by taxonomic group, with mammals being affected over long distance than birds (Benitez, Lopez, et al 2010.