The decomposition of leaf litter regulates nutrient cycling, carbon turnover, and soil fertility, in resource-limited semi-arid ecosystems, where resource-limited conditions intensify ecological responses. In this study, we estimated the decomposition patterns and nutrient release scheme of leaf litter from five woody species (Cassia fistula, Pongamia pinnata, Azadirachta indica, Acacia leucophloea, and Leucaena leucocephala) and the invasive Prosopis juliflora in the Delhi Ridge using litterbags (5 g air-dried litter per bag). Decomposition was enhanced under the P. juliflora canopy, with a lower mean residual litter weight (2.16 g) than that of the native canopies (2.69 g). Percent mass loss, decay constants, and decomposition rates were significantly higher in the presence of P. juliflora, with the maximum decomposition rate observed for P. juliflora litter (16.11%/month, decay constant (k) = 0.59), and the lowest for C. fistula (8.91%/month, k = 0.29). Nutrient release followed the order K > P > N, with more rapid nitrogen and phosphorus mineralization under the P. juliflora canopy. The decomposition rate was positively correlated with the initial litter N and P content (R 2 = 0.90) and negatively correlated with the C/N and C/P ratios.

Leucaena leucocephala, a well-known invasive species, possesses significant yet underexplored phytochemical potential. This study investigated how its chemical composition contributes to adaptation in arid environments and provides opportunities for valorization. Methanolic extracts from the plant parts (roots, leaves, pods, seeds, and flowers) collected in Algeria were assessed for their phenolic, flavonoid, and tannin content, as well as for their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, and photoprotective activities. Seeds exhibited the highest phenolic content (197.26 ± 1.90 μg GAE/mg), while roots were richest in tannins and flavonoids. Notably, strong antioxidant activity was recorded in seeds and leaves (IC50: 3.54 ± 0.05 and 3.61 ± 0.05 μg/mL). Roots displayed a high SPF value of 26.40, and both seed and flower extracts showed significant antibacterial effects against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus. Correlation analyses highlighted a strong positive relationship between tannins and SPF (R2 = 0.92) and a negative correlation between phenolics and DPPH° activity (R2 = -0.84). LC-MS analysis identified 13 key polyphenols, with pods and leaves being particularly rich in compounds like vanillin and gallic acid. These findings underscore L. leucocephala's potential for sustainable use in health and cosmetic industries.

The effect of Leucaena leucocephala leaves supplementation in high proportion concentrate ration on blood glucose and urea nitrogen of lactating dairy cow

The long-term behavior of plant dietary fibers affects their usefulness in creating stable and sustainable functional ingredients. This study compared the structural and chemical features of Leucaena leucocephala seeds stored for 11years under environmental conditions with freshly harvested seeds from the same plant. The anatomical parts, including the seed coat, cotyledons, and endosperm, were examined using physicochemical methods, as specified by the Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC), as well as scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy-dispersive spectroscopy (EDS). Stored seeds maintained surface integrity and had seed coat thickness similar to that of fresh seeds (p>0.05), although fissures appeared due to tegument contraction. The elemental composition (C, N, Ca, K, S, Mg, and O) remained unchanged (p>0.05), consistent with oxidative resistance and the preservation of lignocellulosic cell wall integrity, as inferred from the stability of dietary fiber and the seed coat microstructure. Chemical analysis showed higher levels of proteins (cotyledons and endosperm; p<0.05) and ash (p<0.001) in stored seeds, while fresh seeds contained more soluble carbohydrates (seed coat and endosperm; p<0.001) and lipids in the endosperm (p=0.004). The differences in composition reflect the combined effects of environmental exposure and physiological processes over time. Overall, L. leucocephala maintains its chemical and microstructural integrity during long-term natural aging, highlighting its potential as a durable, sustainable source of functional fibers for food science and plant biotechnology.

Background/Objectives: Plant-derived soluble fibers are being explored as sustainable prebiotic ingredients; however, tropical legumes such as Leucaena leucocephala remain understudied. This study evaluated soluble fibers from L. leucocephala seeds after simulated gastrointestinal digestion, focusing on rheological properties, microbial selectivity, metabolite production, and intestinal safety. Methods: The anatomical parts of the seed underwent INFOGEST 2.0 digestion. Soluble fibers were characterized by GC-MS monosaccharide profiling, viscosity, and SEM/EDS analyses, and were used as substrates for both probiotic and pathogenic bacteria. Fermentation supernatants were analyzed for short-chain fatty acids and lactate, and cytotoxicity was assessed using Caco-2 cells. Results: Endosperm polysaccharides exhibited high apparent viscosity (>300 cP) and pseudoplastic behavior. Monosaccharide profiles revealed the presence of galacto-oligosaccharides and arabinoxylo-oligosaccharides in the oligosaccharide fraction, and galactomannans, xylans, and arabinoxylans in the polysaccharide fraction. Polysaccharides selectively promoted the growth of Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus GG and Bifidobacterium spp., comparable to or exceeding that of fructo-oligosaccharides (p < 0.05), while limiting pathogenic bacteria. Fermentation produced acetate and lactate concentrations of >4500 ppm and >1000 ppm, respectively. Caco-2 viability remained >90% across all treatments. Conclusions: Compartment-resolved analysis identified the endosperm as the principal source of digestion-resistant viscous fiber, selectively fermented by probiotic bacteria at levels matching or exceeding fructo-oligosaccharides. These findings position L. leucocephala endosperm fiber as a candidate prebiotic substrate, warranting further preclinical evaluation.

Enhanced Recovery of Mimosine Content from Leucaena leucocephala using Ionic Liquid Based Microwave-Assisted Extraction

Riparian areas are the unique areas adjacent water body. These transitional zones play a vital role in maintaining water quality and regulating hydrological processes. The current study focuses on the downstream agro-ecosystem landscapes of the Bhadra River, aiming to develop a comprehensive checklist of riparian flora. It examines the tree species diversity, composition and richness of Riparian area from January to May 2025. The study also emphasis to assesses anthropogenic disturbances affecting riparian vegetation in the study area. Random plots were laid on both the sides of Agroecosystem riparian areas of downstream Bhadra River. A total of 48 tree species belonging to 24 families were recorded from the riparian agroecosystem zones of the Bhadra River dominated by the Family Fabaceae. IVI analysis reveals that Albizia saman, Pongemia pinnata, Leucaena leucocephala and Eucalyptus as dominant contributors to the vegetation structure with IVI values of 66.1,35.8 ,30.1 and 18.3 respectively. In contrast native riparian species such as Terminalia arjuna and Syzygium cumini were observed with very low IVI values. The dominance of Non riparian species in the riparian buffers of Bhadra indicates the possible Anthropogenic pressures which requires an immediate attention for the restoration of native riparian vegetation for the conservation of river morphology and associated aquatic habitats also for the maintenance of essential ecosystem services.

The present investigation was conducted to evaluate the effect of Moringa oleifera, Ailanthus excelsa and Leucaena leucocephala on the growth performance of Sirohi goat kids over a 90-day experimental period. Thirty-six healthy kids (approximately one month old) were selected based on uniform initial body weight and randomly assigned to four dietary treatment groups (n=9 per group). The experimental treatments consisted of: T1 (Control: basal roughage + concentrate), T2 (Ardu; Ailanthus excelsa), T3 (Subabul; Leucaena leucocephala), and T4 (Moringa; Moringa oleifera). All the groups were supplemented with 100 g/day of concentrate mixture and groundnut straw ad libitum, while the respective experimental green fodders were offered ad libitum. To support early physiological development, all kids were allowed dam suckling during the morning and evening, maintaining standardized management practices across all groups. Body weights of kids were recorded at fortnightly interval. Results revealed that the T4 group (Moringa) achieved the significantly (P&lt;0.05) highest final average body weight per kid (15.58 kg), followed by T3 (13.82 kg), T2 (12.77 kg) and the lowest in the control group T1 (12.15 kg). Similarly, the T4 group fed with moringa green fodder achieved significantly (P&lt;0.05) highest total weight gain (8.33 kg) followed by T3 (6.6 kg), T2 (5.63 kg) and T1 control group (4.88 kg). The study concludes that the incorporation of Moringa as green fodder significantly enhances growth performance and weight gain in Sirohi kids, outperforming Ardu and Subabul, thereby suggesting its potential as a high-quality protein supplement for goat and other small ruminants.

Introduction. Forage legumes complement dry matter (DM) supply and protein content in grass-based cattle feeding; however, the availability of species adapted to the conditions of the Colombian dry Caribbean is limited. Objective. To evaluate forage production and quality of shrub legume genotypes during the rainy and dry seasons in the Colombian dry Caribbean. Materials and methods. The study was conducted in the municipality of Agustín Codazzi, Cesar department, Colombia. Dry forage yield (DFY; kg ha-¹) and nutritional value were evaluated by near-infrared spectroscopy in two genotypes of Leucaena diversifolia (LD15551, LD21242), one of Cratylia argentea (CA2238), and Leucaena leucocephala cv. Cunningham (control), during the rainy and dry seasons of 2018 and 2019. Analysis of variance was performed to determine the effects of species, season, and their interaction under a completely randomized design with a factorial arrangement. Results. The control showed the highest DFY with 1288.9 kg (p &lt; 0.05; average across seasons), as well as the highest crude protein content (24.7 %, p &lt; 0.05) and dry matter digestibility (73.7 %, p &lt; 0.05) during the rainy season. In CA2238, the highest neutral detergent fiber content was observed (45.9 %, p &lt; 0.05; average across seasons), along with the lowest gross energy contents (p &lt; 0.05) in both seasons (4.15 and 4.09 Mcal kg-¹ DM). Conclusions. Differences were observed in forage production and in most quality components associated with species and season. Leucaena leucocephala stood out over the other evaluated materials.

Silage serves as a cornerstone for the advancement of the livestock industry and a critical method for biomass preservation and utilization. This study investigated the impact of geographical and environmental factors-including longitude, latitude, temperature, relative humidity, precipitation, altitude, and sunshine duration-on fermentation parameters and bacterial communities in natural forage silage. Fresh samples of Saccharum arundinaceum and Leucaena leucocephala were collected from Changjiang, Haikou, Wanning, Danzhou, Qiongzhong and Sanya in Hainan Province, China. After 60 days of anaerobic fermentation, fermentation parameters and bacterial communities were analyzed. Results showed that fermentation parameters of the same plant exhibited significant variations across different regions. For instance, Leucaena leucocephala silage from Haikou showed the lowest pH value (4.32), while that from Danzhou recorded the highest pH value (5.63). In Saccharum arundinaceum silages, the prevalent genera in HGH (Saccharum arundinaceum silage from Haikou) were Weissella (49.85%) and Leuconostoc (20.42%), while the bacterial community of DGH (Saccharum arundinaceum silage from Danzhou) was dominated by Klebsiella (62.69%). These results revealed significant variations in fermentation characteristics and microbial community structure of the same plant species across different geographical regions. The Mantel-test network heatmap analysis demonstrated that longitude, latitude, altitude, precipitation, and relative humidity were identified as influential factors shaping silage microbial communities, with latitude being the most important geographical factor influencing silage microbiota. In conclusion, these findings highlight the critical need for region-specific adaptation of silage production strategies, particularly in response to latitudinal variations, to accommodate local environmental conditions, even when processing identical plant species.

Feed availability and quality remain major constraints to ruminant productivity in West Africa, where livestock systems rely heavily on locally available resources such as natural forages, crop residues and agro-industrial by-products. However, reliable ration formulation requires accurate information on feed chemical composition, while existing data are fragmented and highly variable. This study conducted a systematic review of peer-reviewed literature published between 2000 and 2025 to synthesize available data on the chemical composition of ruminant feeds in West Africa. Following PRISMA guidelines, 44 studies reporting quantitative feed composition data were retained. Feed resources were classified into agro-industrial by-products, agricultural by-products and forages, and descriptive statistics were calculated for key nutritional parameters. The results revealed substantial variability in nutrient composition across feed types and even within the same feed resource. Cottonseed cake emerged as a major protein-rich supplement, legume haulms showed higher nutritional value than cereal residues, and several browse species such as Moringa oleifera and Leucaena leucocephala demonstrated high protein potential. These findings highlight that fixed feed composition values are poorly suited to heterogeneous tropical feeding systems. The reference ranges established in this review provide a more reliable basis for feed evaluation and ration formulation and can support the development of locally adapted feeding strategies and decision-support tools for West African livestock systems.

This dataset illustrates the genetic diversity and evolutionary linkages of five underutilized Nigerian native legume species: Parkia biglobosa, Albizia lebbeck, Cassia fistula, Leucaena leucocephala, and Senna alata. These species are vital sources of sustenance, nutrition, revenue, and natural fertilizer, significantly contributing to sustainable agriculture. Nevertheless, limited knowledge exists regarding their genomes and their genetic diversity. We examined 22 high-quality chloroplast matK (Maturase K) gene sequences to assess the genetic divergence among the species and their phylogenetic relationships. The analysis of sequence alignment and diversity recorded 888 nucleotide positions, identified 10 segregating sites, 11 mutations, and 3 distinct haplotypes. Gene diversity was 0.654, whereas nucleotide diversity was negligible at 0.028. The analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) indicated that 88.04% (p < 0.001) of genetic variation was shared among populations, whereas 11.96% was detected within populations. Employing the Unweighted Pair Group Method with Arithmetic Mean (UPGMA) algorithm for phylogenetic analysis, the species examined were classified into unique evolutionary lineages along species lines with a minimal exception. This information serves as a valuable genetic resource for enhancing conservation, breeding initiatives, and the sustainable utilization of underutilized native legumes in tropical settings. It impacts food security, agroforestry, and environmental restoration.

ABSTRACTBackground and Aim:Buffaloes play a vital role in tropical livestock systems, yet their productivity and reproductive efficiency are strongly influenced by nutritional management. Protein- and amino acid-rich legume forages have been widely proposed as sustainable dietary supplements to enhance metabolic and reproductive performance. However, evidence regarding their effectiveness in animals maintained under adequate nutritional status remains limited. Therefore, this study evaluated the effects of supplementation with mixed legume leaf powder on nutrient intake, digestibility, blood metabolites, growth performance, and reproductive hormone profiles in female buffaloes.Materials and Methods:Sixteen female swamp buffaloes (initial body weight 532.85 ± 85.58 kg) were assigned to control and treatment groups in a completely randomized design. The control group received a diet of Napier grass and concentrate, whereas the treatment group received an additional 10% mixed legume leaf powder comprising Gliricidia sepium, Calliandra calothyrsus, and Leucaena leucocephala (1:1:1). Feed intake, apparent digestibility, and amino acid intake were measured. Blood samples were collected to determine glucose and urea concentrations. Reproductive hormone profiles (progesterone and estrogen) were monitored throughout the estrous cycle. Data were analyzed using analysis of variance and linear mixed-effects models.Results:Supplementation with mixed legume leaf powder significantly increased intake of dry matter, organic matter, crude protein, gross energy, and most amino acids (p < 0.05). Digestibility of crude protein, as well as digested intake of dry matter and organic matter, was also significantly improved (p < 0.05). However, serum urea and glucose concentrations were not affected by dietary treatment (p > 0.05). Similarly, progesterone and estrogen profiles across the estrous cycle showed no significant differences between control and treatment groups (p > 0.05). Body weight gain did not improve significantly despite increased nutrient intake.Conclusion:Mixed legume leaf powder supplementation enhances nutrient intake, amino acid supply, and digestibility in female buffaloes but does not influence metabolic status, growth performance, or reproductive hormone dynamics under adequate nutritional conditions. These findings suggest that additional protein supplementation may provide limited benefits when animals are already maintained under optimal feeding and body condition. Further studies under nutrient-deficient conditions and over longer durations are recommended to clarify potential reproductive advantages.

While the effects of different fertilization strategies on chili (Capsicum frutescens) cultivation have been previously examined, the lack of comparative assessment of mixed versus mono-fertilization approaches limits our understanding. To address this gap, we conducted an experiment using a completely randomized design (CRD) with five fertilization treatments along with four replications of each treatment (e.g., Leucaena leucocephala leaf litter and recommended dose of synthetic fertilizers (RDF)) to observe the effect of these treatments on productivity traits, NPP (net primary productivity), quality, and overall yield of chili. We found that mixed fertilization (T4) results higher yield (~ 60% and ~ 90%) compared to control (T0) and sole organic fertilizer (T1 + T2) respectively. The T4 treatment showed consistently higher plant height, leaf and fruit number at 60 DAT, as well as higher flowering at 45 DAT compared to other treatments. We also found that NPP (above- and belowground combined) was higher in T3 and T₄ treatments compared to control and organic fertilization. Similarly, quality traits such as vitamin C, capsaicin content, and SPAD reading were higher under mixed fertilization. Linear fit regression model indicated that both ANPP and yield were positively associated with vegetative and reproductive traits, particularly leaf number and flowering, highlighting that structural growth directly contributed to productivity gains. Overall, our results suggest that mixed fertilization enhances both productivity and quality traits of chili. Therefore, integrated organic and inorganic fertilizer management are recommended to improve yield and quality of chili.

Leucaena leucocephala, commonly known as lamtoro, is an invasive species that proliferates in tropical regions, including Sumbawa Island, and poses a threat to local biodiversity. Nevertheless, the abundant biomass of this plant presents an opportunity for its utilization as a renewable energy source in the form of wood pellets. This study aims to analyze the emission characteristics of lamtoro-based wood pellets substituted with plastic waste and sodium carbonate, as a strategy to enhance energy efficiency while reducing the environmental impact of solid waste. Three pellet formulations were tested: (1) 100% lamtoro as the control, (2) lamtoro mixed with 10% plastic waste, and (3) lamtoro mixed with 10% sodium carbonate. Combustion tests were conducted using a flue gas analyzer to measure the concentrations of carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO₂), nitrogen oxides (NOx), and particulate matter. The results indicate that the addition of plastic waste significantly increased the calorific value of the pellets but also led to higher emissions of CO and NOx. In contrast, the addition of sodium carbonate demonstrated a positive effect by reducing CO emissions by 35% and NOx by 28% compared to the control, as well as improving combustion efficiency through a catalytic mechanism in the decomposition of carbon compounds. These findings suggest that lamtoro wood pellets combined with sodium carbonate are a promising alternative bioenergy source that is environmentally friendly, supports the management of invasive species, and contributes to the diversification of renewable energy sources in rural and conservation areas.

Drought is widely acknowledged as one of the most important abiotic stresses affecting crop productivity worldwide. In this context, a green, facile and low-cost method using Leucaena leucocephala seeds extracts and iron sulfate was used to synthesize a a binary FeOOH/Fe2O3 nanosized composite (BFNC) and investigated it as a nanoprimer for mung bean cultivation under drought stress. A green and facile and low-cost method using Leucaena leucocephala seeds extracts and iron sulfate was used to synthesize the BFNC, which was characterized by XPS, FT-IR, UV-Vis, EDX, XRD, SEM, TEM, and Zeta potential analysis. A pot experiment was conducted to investigate the effect of seed priming with different aqueous BFNC solution (5, 10, 20 mg/L) for 6 h on mung bean under drought stress. Based on the binding energies at 712.28 eV in the Fe2p3/2 region and the distinguishing multiple shake up satellite structures, the XPS analysis revealed that iron was predominantly present in the Fe3+ oxidation state and the coexistence of FeOOH and Fe2O3 phases, forming a BFNC. The FT-IR results indicated that the BFNC was capped well with the plant extract. The SEM image showed a well-separated spherical nanoparticle morphology with asize range from 13 to 18 nm. The study findings revealed that seed priming with 5 mg/L BFNC was the most effective treatment for enhancing growth parameters and biochemical attributes of mung bean under drought stress. The use of the green-synthesized BFNC is a promising, and sustainable approach to mitigate the damaging effects of drought on agricultural crops. whereas the, seeds extract serves as an excellent oxidizing, caping and, stabilizing agent. However, as reported in most of the literature the green synthesis of iron based nanoparticles, utilized plant extract, as a bio reduction agent.This practice directly supports the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) related to climate action and ensuring global food security.

The high demand for conventional ingredients used in the formulation of rabbit diets has increased competition, resulting in higher costs. Tropical forage plants with high nutritional content can provide relief for this pressing issue, as well as offer potential health benefits to the animal, which would ultimately lead to a quality product. A review of 33 studies on Trichanthera gigantea (T. gigantea), Morus alba (M. alba, MA), Leucaena leucocephala (L. leucocephala, LL), Gliricidia sepium (G. sepium) and Moringa oleifera (M. oleifera) and their effect on rabbits spanning 1999 to 2026 was conducted. This review demonstrated that alternative tropical fodder trees found in the Caribbean have the potential to enhance performance, the oxidative status of sera and meat, carcass traits, blood and meat biochemistry indicators and digestibility. On the contrary, most of these plants contain anti-nutrients that exert negative effects on growing rabbits and their health. The evidence revealed in this review shows that various inclusion levels of the forages can improve rabbit meat production, thereby lowering ingredient costs and providing consumers with a quality protein option. Therefore, the incorporation of tropical forages in rabbit diets is recommended.

ABSTRACT Background Rapid expansion of opencast mining in developing nations is exerting profound pressure on land resources, with the extent of degradation constraining the effectiveness of topsoil replacement and organic amendments in restoring soil organic carbon (SOC) and nitrogen (N) pools, which are key for soil health and productivity. Aim This study assessed the potential of perennial legumes ( Leucaena leucocephala , Gliricidia sepium , Pueraria phaseoloides ) to restore the fertility of mined degraded soils. Methods An on‐site revegetation experiment with a control (un‐revegetated) treatment and selected legumes was established. SOC and total N were monitored prior to and 2 and 5 years after revegetation. Two and 3 years after revegetation, maize was cultivated to assess soil productivity under the influence of selected legumes. Results There was initial decline in SOC and total N at early stages of revegetation. However, significant increases were observed relative to the control with pronounced effects 5 years after revegetation. Highest changes in SOC (3.4–12.4 g kg −1 ) and total N (0.3–1.1 g kg −1 ) were observed under L. leucocephala . Growth of maize revealed significant improvement under P. phaseoloides , attaining highest plant height (≈80 cm) compared to the lowest (&lt;30 cm) in the control treatment 3 years after revegetation. Despite significant increases in SOC and total N, plant growth was generally limited. Conclusions Although legumes showed strong potential in restoring soil fertility, utilizing their full potential requires adaptive establishment strategies, especially for L. leucocephala , and consistent management of P. phaseoloides to control its vigorous spread and maintain balanced ground cover.

Scarcity and cost of topsoil and conventional materials make legume residues a promising alternative for reclaiming land degraded by opencast mining. This study examined plant residues by evaluating the effect of their quality (C:N ratio, lignin, polyphenols) on soil organic carbon (SOC), total soil nitrogen (TN) and crop (maize, cowpea) performance. A 12-month pot experimentation in Kumasi (Ghana) tested leafy residues of Leucaena leucocephala, Gliricidia sepium, Mucuna pruriens, Pueraria phaseoloides, and Panicum maximum (control), applied at four rates (0, 10, 20, 30 t ha⁻¹ dry weight) using a factorial randomized complete block design with four replications. Legumes had higher N content (≈ 3.5% by Leucaena) and higher quality indices (highest PRQI of 4.7 by Gliricidia), but lower lignin content than Panicum. SOC and TN gains were high (≈ 500% SOC and > 800% TN gains by Mucuna and Leucaena, respectively), explained by low initial concentrations of the substrate. Although mineralization was slow, plant quality indicators correlated with SOC and TN. Maize, other than cowpea, responded well to residues, with Leucaena (30 t ha⁻¹) yielding the highest dry matter (≈ 4.2 t ha⁻¹). Legume residues provide a sustainable solution for reclaiming opencast-mined land, showing subsoil improvement potential that requires field trials to validate pot-scale findings.

Abstract This study evaluated the effects of incorporating Leucaena leucocephala and Calliandra calothyrsus into Pakchong grass silage on its physical and chemical quality. The experiment used a completely randomized design with five treatments and replications. The treatments were: P0 (100% Pakchong), P1 (80% Pakchong + 20% L. leucocephala), P2 (60% Pakchong + 40% L. leucocephala), P3 (80% Pakchong + 20% Calliandra), and P4 (60% Pakchong + 40% Calliandra). Forages were wilted to 60–70% dry matter, ensiled in vacuum-sealed bags for 28 days, and evaluated for physical traits (color, odor, texture, mold) and chemical composition (pH, DM, CP, CF, EE, NDF, ADF). Physical quality was analyzed using ANOVA with Duncan’s test, while chemical data were descriptively presented. Results showed significant effects (P &lt; 0.05) on color, texture, mold, and pH, but not odor. Legume inclusion increased DM and CP, reduced CF, NDF, ADF, and enhanced silage appearance and stability.