Letter Size Research Articles

The "Systematic Screening of Handwriting Difficulties in Parkinson's Disease" (SOS) test is the only tool specifically designed to evaluate handwriting in people with Parkinson's Disease (pwPD). It is language specific. To assess the construct validity, intrarater and interrater reliability of the Italian version of the SOS test. Thirty-five pwPD and 15 healthy controls (HC) completed the Italian version of the SOS test. Participants copied an Italian text for 5min on blank paper using a pen. Two independent raters evaluated writing speed, letter size, and handwriting quality according to the SOS test criteria. Correlations between the Italian SOS test scores, fine motor skills, and PD characteristics were analysed using Spearman's Rho correlation coefficient (ρ). Group comparisons were adjusted for education level using ANCOVA. Intrarater and interrater reliability were calculated using the intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) or Kendall's Tau (Kτ) coefficient depending on data distribution. The Italian version of the SOS test showed significant correlations between writing speed and fine motor skills in pwPD (ρ = 0.40; p = 0.016). PwPD showed significantly smaller letter size (η2p = 0.15; p = 0.006), lower writing speed (η2p = 0.18; p = 0.002), and lower writing quality (η2p = 0.12; p = 0.015) compared to HC. Intrarater reliability was excellent (ICCs > 0.990 and Kτ > 0.762 for pwPD; ICCs > 0.923 for HC), as was interrater reliability (ICCs > 0.860 and Kτ = 0.999 for pwPD; ICCs > 0.925 for HC). The Italian version of the SOS test is a valid and reliable tool for clinically assessing handwriting in Italian-speaking pwPD. https://clinicaltrials.gov/ : NCT04876352, prospectively registered on May 6th 2021.

Patients with central vision loss must rely upon regions of their unaffected peripheral retina to carry out fine-scale visual tasks. We aimed to determine the conditions under which contrast reversal of targets and/or backgrounds may act to improve visual acuity in the peripheral field. Ten participants with normal or corrected-to-normal vision performed a visual acuity task in which they were asked to identify the orientation of a letter-C target presented at 10° in the right visual field. Minimum letter size thresholds were measured for static (black or white) and contrast-reversing (8.5 or 17 Hz) targets presented on a uniform mean luminance background, a static patterned background, or a dynamic version of the patterned background, which was contrast reversing at the same temporal frequencies used for the targets. When presented on a uniform background, black targets produced lower thresholds than white targets, and there was no consistent benefit of contrast reversal. However, when presented on a patterned background, acuity for contrast-reversing targets consistently exceeded that for either polarity static target. Contrast reversing the background also improved acuity, for both static targets and targets that contrast reversed at a different rate. Peripheral visual acuity is significantly enhanced by dynamic contrast modulation, particularly when the modulation acts to promote segmentation between target and background. Adding temporal modulation to the target or background could provide a simple way of enhancing peripheral acuity for patients with central vision loss.

The aim of this research is to identify dysgraphia cases among rural EFL learners at Patronato de Amparo Social “Niño de Isinche” during the academic year 2024-2025, so that future researches can adapt activities to support children with handwriting difficulties. The study employed a descriptive, cross-sectional, qualitative research approach with a non-experimental design, using an adapted Dysgraphia Test and expert - validated rubric. The findings reveal signs of dysgraphia such as inconsistency in letter size, poor alignment of text, and omission of letters or words. These results highlight the need to provide writing support to EFL students and the importance of identifying and addressing these types of learning disabilities to promote inclusive education. It is recommended to implement teaching strategies that are adapted to the needs of students with dysgraphia in order to improve their academic performance in EFL learning. In addition, the importance of training teachers in inclusive education is highlighted, in order to effectively address these learning disabilities. In conclusion, this study contributes to underrepresented research on dysgraphia in rural Latin America EFL contexts.

The ability to write cursive letters is a fundamental skill in elementary education, playing a crucial role in the development of fine motor skills, handwriting neatness, and writing speed, all of which impact students’ overall academic achievement. This study aims to identify the factors causing difficulties in writing cursive letters among second-grade students at SDN Sidodadi 1/153 Surabaya. A qualitative case study approach was employed, focusing on a single class group. Observations revealed that students’ writing abilities fell into three categories: high, moderate, and low. Students in the high category demonstrated neat and consistent handwriting, while the moderate category was characterized by irregular letter size and inconsistent spacing between words. The low category featured handwriting that was difficult to read due to untidiness, uneven letter sizes, and irregular spacing between letters. The factors contributing to writing difficulties were divided into internal and external factors. Internal factors included weak fine motor skills, low interest and motivation, insufficient writing practice, and limited understanding of cursive writing rules. External factors, identified through interviews, included excessive gadget use, limited parental involvement in home learning, and less interactive teaching methods. This study highlights the importance of a holistic and collaborative learning approach involving teachers, parents, and the environment to address students’ difficulties in writing cursive letters.

Traditional models of reading lack a realistic simulation of the early visual processing stages, taking input in the form of letter banks and predefined line segments, making them unsuitable for modeling early brain responses. We used variations of the VGG-11 convolutional neural network (CNN) to create models of visual word recognition that starts from the pixel-level and performs the macro-scale computations needed for the detection and segmentation of letter shapes to word-form identification of large vocabulary of 10k Finnish words, regardless of letter size, shape, or rotation. The models were evaluated based on an existing magnetoencephalography (MEG) study where participants viewed regular words, pseudowords, noise-embedded words, symbol strings, and consonant strings. The original images used in the study were presented to the models and the activity in the layers was compared to MEG evoked response amplitudes. Through a few alterations to make the network more biologically plausible, we found an CNN architecture that can correctly simulate the behavior of three prominent responses, namely the type I (early visual response), type II (the ‘letter string’ response), and the N400m. In conclusion, starting a model of reading with convolution-and-pooling steps enables the flexibility and realism crucial for a direct model-to-brain comparison.

Traditional models of reading lack a realistic simulation of the early visual processing stages, taking input in the form of letter banks and predefined line segments, making them unsuitable for modeling early brain responses. We used variations of the VGG-11 convolutional neural network (CNN) to create models of visual word recognition that starts from the pixel-level and performs the macro-scale computations needed for the detection and segmentation of letter shapes to word-form identification of large vocabulary of 10k Finnish words, regardless of letter size, shape, or rotation. The models were evaluated based on an existing magnetoencephalography (MEG) study where participants viewed regular words, pseudowords, noise-embedded words, symbol strings, and consonant strings. The original images used in the study were presented to the models and the activity in the layers was compared to MEG evoked response amplitudes. Through a few alterations to make the network more biologically plausible, we found an CNN architecture that can correctly simulate the behavior of three prominent responses, namely the type I (early visual response), type II (the 'letter string' response), and the N400m. In conclusion, starting a model of reading with convolution-and-pooling steps enables the flexibility and realism crucial for a direct model-to-brain comparison.

Joint optimization of replicative rate and information storage set the letter size of primordial genetic alphabet.

Creating diverse, equitable and inclusive (DEI) environments is essential for thriving in academic medicine. However, it was unclear if and how physical environments in academic medicine convey DEI messages consistently. This study investigated how the physical environment at a medical school represents DEI values. We adopted an autophotography research methodology where we took photos and shared experiences and emotions through group reflections. Photographs included pictures, statues, artwork and physical space arrangements of clinical, administrative and teaching sites. Researchers with diverse backgrounds reflected on the 190 photos during four group reflection sessions. Discussions were recorded, transcribed and analysed using thematic analysis. The physical environment was a mirror of the past and the present, representing what we value, who we are, what we do and whom we serve. The walls exclusively demonstrated the value of excellence, predominantly from one group, despite commonly shared DEI values throughout the school. Power inequality on the walls was apparent in subtle ways, including the size and permanence of photos or letters and the selection of words based on gender, position and race. Sterile spaces or walls with random, stock photographs were also observed. Some unintentionally inconsiderate physical environments were hurtful, undermined our values and sense of identity and weakened relationships. This project was instrumental in leading to several meaningful changes at the school. Creating and sustaining inclusive learning environments are not possible without consistent messages in physical environments. We continue to implement changes that facilitate DEI values in our physical environment.

This study aimed to develop an assistive video for parents in teaching cursive writing to help address the illegibility of learners along with letter formation, letter size proportion and alignment, smoothness or quality, and spacing. It also aimed to determine the competence and challenges of parents in assisting their children in teaching cursive writing which were the bases in the development of the output of the study. The Research and Development (R&D) methodology employed involved a sample of Grade 3 learners and their parents from Catholic schools in Ilocos Norte. Specifically, 155 Grade 3 learners and 125 Grade 3 parents participated in the study, The output was validated by six panel experts and an additional 10 parents who provided feedback via a distributed questionnaire. The study utilized three distinct questionnaires to assess the learners' cursive writing legibility, evaluate the parents' competencies and challenges in assisting their children with cursive writing, and determine the material's validity. Findings showed a significant need for an assistive video to help parents support their children in learning cursive writing. Findings revealed that the video material was rated as Very Highly Valid, demonstrating its effectiveness in enhancing learning outcomes and its overall quality. Recommendations were made for parents to facilitate the adoption, utilization, and further development of the assistive video to maximize its impact on educational practices.

This study reviewed the legibility of Thai typefaces, type sizes, and colour contrast in mobile applications provided by Thai government offices. Although the Electronic Government Agency (Public Organization) (EGA) has introduced the Government Website Standards and Government Mobile Application Standards, these standards need to cover the design of Thai typographical concerns such as legibility and visibility in great detail. This study aimed to identify typographical issues that may arise in these mobile applications and gain a deeper understanding of the subject matter. The findings of this study could lead to future investigations that provide a better understanding of the topic and contribute to the development of appropriate standards and legislation. We conducted an in depth analysis of Thai Government mobile applications on Android focusing on public service areas. Using a smartphone to take screenshots and a vector graphics design program to measure physical type sizes based on the Bo Baimai height measurement, we measured the use of typefaces, type sizes, and colour contrast to ensure accessibility to all users. Additionally, we used a colour contrast analyser application to measure colour contrast and ensure accessibility to all users. Our study provides insights to improve user experiences with these applications and highlights that Thai web and mobile standards lack suitable fonts and sizes. We identified two main categories of Thai typefaces: conventional text fonts and Roman-like Thai fonts. Most Thai mobile applications used letter sizes bigger than 1.2 mm in Bo Baimai height, but some used smaller sizes, which could be worse for reading. The smallest type sizes for body text ranged from 1 to 1.7 mm. Regarding contrast ratios, we found that regular text in selected mobile applications did not meet the Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG) 2.1 enhanced contrast requirement of a 7:1 ratio. However, some contrast ratios for large text met the 4.5:1 requirement. Some regular text with a 4.5:1 contrast ratio requirement passed the WCAG 2.1 minimum contrast test, whereas some large text with a 3:1 contrast ratio requirement also met the criteria. Our study suggests the need for developing better standards and regulations for Thai fonts, sizes, and colour contrasts in mobile applications to ensure accessibility for all users.

Abstract PURPOSE: To compare the measurement of amplitude of accommodation (AOA) by various techniques and to assess the effect of varying target size and varying distance on the AOA using Donder’s and Sheard’s Method. METHODS: A prospective study was conducted among 100 students aged between 18 and 30 years who met the inclusion criteria. Subjects with best-corrected visual acuity 6/6 at near and distance were included in the study. A comprehensive eye examination of the patients was carried out. Then, assessment of the near point of accommodation with the Royal Air Force rule by giving targets of different font sizes (N8 and N10) was performed repeatedly over distance correction, and diopter reading was noted. Then minus lens technique at different distances (at 33 cm and at 40 cm) was used to assess the AOA. IBM-SPSS 22.0 was used for data analysis. RESULTS: t of a total of 100 participants, 49 (49%) were males and 51 (51%) were females, with a mean age of 20 ± 1.79 years. Donder’s method showed the highest AOA compared to Sheard’s method. It has been found that there was a clinically significant difference in the AOA with the two different letter sizes (N8 and N10) during the monocular measurement using Donder’s method. Furthermore, a clinically significant difference was found between the AOA when measured monocularly as well as binocularly at two different distances (at 33 cm and 40 cm) using Sheard’s method. CONCLUSION: We have concluded that the highest AOA was measured using Donder’s method, and the effect of varying letter size and varying target distance on AOA using Donder’s and Sheard’s method is clinically significant. It is very crucial to consider the standard target size and target distance during the measurement of AOA as varying target size and target distance could result in varying AOA which may lead to inappropriate diagnosis and management of the condition as well.

Currently, writing aids for upper extremity rehabilitation in stroke patients are not developed with consideration of biomechanical characteristics, making it difficult to achieve proper support effects. Therefore, in this study, we conducted a comparative analysis to examine how the use of two types of writing aids affects writing speed, letter size, and upper extremity muscle activation based on hand function and electromyography assessments in 12 stroke patients. Hand function was assessed using the Jebsen–Taylor hand function test, while writing ability (writing speed and letter size) was measured using the Korean alphabet writing test. Muscle activity was recorded using surface electromyography from both the paralyzed side (PS) and nonparalyzed side (NPS). The results showed that writing speed was significantly slower and horizontal letter sizes were larger on the PS. Additionally, muscle activation patterns on the PS were significantly influenced by the design of the writing aids, suggesting that the aids’ design affects compensatory movements and muscle function. These findings emphasize the importance of personalized rehabilitation tools that cater to the individual needs of stroke patients. Future research will focus on developing customized writing aids based on biomechanical data to better support rehabilitation goals.

Purpose: To compare near-distance reading speeds across different intraocular lens (IOL) types using a Korean reading speed measurement application.Methods: Patients who underwent bilateral cataract surgery and received trifocal IOL (Panoptix), extended depth of focus (EDoF) IOL (Vivity), or enhanced monofocal IOL (Eyhance) were enrolled. Korean reading speed and reading & speaking speed were measured using a Korean reading speed measurement application. Additionally, satisfaction with visual function in everyday life was assessed using a questionnaire.Results: No statistically significant differences were observed in postoperative corrected distance visual acuity among the three groups (p = 0.71). The Panoptix group demonstrated significantly higher distance-corrected near visual acuity than the other two groups (p < 0.05). For letter sizes of logMAR 0.5 or larger, the Panoptix group exhibited significantly higher reading and reading & speaking speeds than the other two groups. For letter sizes of logMAR 0.8 or larger, the Vivity group showed significantly higher reading and reading & speaking speeds than the Eyhance group (p < 0.05). The Panoptix group showed significantly greater satisfaction with visual function in work at near distances, including that for activities such as reading a book.Conclusion: The Panoptix trifocal IOL is expected to provide superior near-vision function and patient satisfaction than other IOL types.

This study seeks to examine the salient manifestations of handwriting difficulties experienced by learners of English as a Foreign Language (EFL), throwing light on the cognitive, neural, and educational aspects of handwriting. Qualitative and quantitative research designs were adopted to provide a comprehensive understanding of the manifestations of handwriting difficulties among EFL learners. In total, 80 college-level EFL students aged between18 to 22 years were included in this study. To investigate the specific manifestations of handwriting difficulties faced by the EFL learner population, data were gathered using a handwriting task given to all participants. The results of this investigation showed that the participants performed less than optimally in key handwriting features, including letter size consistency, legibility, word spacing, letter spacing, letter shape, left margin, and writing speed. Based on the findings, the study concluded with proposed interventions and instructional strategies to enhance the legibility and fluency of EFL learners' handwriting.

The Latin script has a vertical stripe pattern in it, which is known to cause visual discomfort. This study started from the hypothesis that a lower stripe pattern could result in better visual comfort than a taller stripe pattern. I evaluated this hypothesis with several letterforms and their correlating stripe patterns, tested in four independent tests: a ranking test, reading progression, measuring neurological response, and measuring eye movements. The results provide some indications that taller stripe patterns are less comfortable, but those results were mostly outside the range of common letter sizes for reading texts. Also, results for letterforms and plain stripe patterns differed. The results suggest that multiple design parameters influence reading comfort simultaneously, and that ‘the number of design details per surface’ is a design parameter that could play an important role in determining reading comfort. This needs to be evaluated in further studies.

South African artist Santu Mofokeng’s The Black Photo Album—Look at Me: 1890–1950 (1997) displays black people’s photographic portraits and text through a slide projection. For this archive project, he collected, restored, and re-contextualized the old portraits and added text. The presented figures depict the black South Africans who lived at the end of the nineteenth century. Most of them are well-dressed and take a pose in a European studio. Different from the well-prepared photographic representation, pieces of text include a disorder of alphabets, varied size of letters, inconsistent ground color, and misprinting effect. In a sense, the ambivalent mode of images and text seems to appeal the black people’s inner conflicts between being modernized versus colonized. In fact, Mofokeng once said that such a middle-class of black people did not exist in his education. Thus, this research analyzes the ways in which intertextuality of images and text in The Black Photo Album fills with the incomplete part of South African history. Reconsidering the functional limits of the TRC(Truth and Reconciliation Commission, 1995) in South Africa, this research argues that Mofokeng’s archive project delivers emotions of memories of the black people, which were not registered in the nation’s history.

Invasive alien plant species (IAPS) may cause threats to native biodiversity in ecosystems. Researchers have been investigating all the possible ways that they can be used effectively for other purposes. Since IAPS are capable of forming cellulose fibre nets, in this research, papers were made from three different types of IAPS (Japanese knotweed, giant goldenrod, and black locust). This research examined these IAPS papers and their effectiveness when used as printing substrates. In comparison to commercial office paper, the differences in basic, surface, optical, and microscopic properties were measured. As a widely used technology, inkjet printing was applied. We tested a commonly used sans-serif typeface (which has been established as being more legible than other typefaces in previous research) in three different type sizes (i.e., 8, 10, and 12 pt). According to the results, paper made from IAPS could offer some usable properties and acceptable legibility, especially when printing typefaces with specific attributes, such as moderate counter size, higher x-height, and minimal differences in the letter stroke width, are used. An appropriate typographic tonal density should be achieved in combination with an adequate letter size, e.g., 10 pt type size when a sans-serif typeface is used.

Effects of Letter Size and Luminance on the Legibility of Variable Message Sign Under Foggy Weather Conditions

Information and communication revolution has brought radical changes in the life style of users. Print media has broken the geographical barriers and also have become more so common with them. During the last few decades, the educational world has begun to appreciate the enormous potential of information and communication technology, which influences our future lives. Improved communication and information access is related to social and economic development. Print media provides an opportunity to bridge the gap between information rich and information poor. Audience research beside the media research is one of the stages which the study was undertaken, under this stage the data were collected from a sample of 80 subscribers from Herat University campus, using personal interview method with the help of well-structured pre-tested interview schedule. The study revealed that most of the readers rated the magazine as moderately effective. Ease in reading, attractiveness of the title and design of the cover page, among cover page components; readability, accuracy, clarity, usefulness, relevancy and adequacy of information among content components and letter size and number of pages per article and magazine among format components received the highest perception score.

The article is devoted to onomatopoeia as a means of expressiveness in a graphic novel, to be precise, to the peculiarities of the translation of onomatopoeic words from French into Ukrainian. The purpose of the study is to find out the characteristic traits of onomatopoeia in a graphic novel and analyze its translation strategies, compiling a mini-dictionary of onomatopoeias (language pair French — Ukrainian). In the course of the research, it was found that the graphic novel relies on a purely visual and textual component. It is the visual accompaniment of colors, text and drawing style that helps to understand how to perceive onomatopoeia in context. Such an artistic tool as a speech bubble is also responsible for conveying the meaning of onomatopoeia, so the shape, size, and style of letters must be taken into account during interpretation. When working on the translation of onomatopoeia in graphic novels, it is necessary to rely on general linguistic knowledge, analyzing the type of onomatopoeia by origin (human sounds, animal sounds, nature sounds, sounds of objects) and the meaning of formative onomatopes for a more effective selection of analogues. At the same time, the process of translation is primarily a creative process, so it is impossible to offer a specific model of work on the text. Having studied the ways of translating onomatopoeia in a number of comics about Tintin (Hergé) and in “Persepolis” (Marjan Satrapi), we came to the conclusion that the translators used the following strategies: transcription / transliteration; partial adaptation (replacement of one or two letters); complete replacement of the onomatopoeic word with a word specific to the Ukrainian language; full replacement of the word with partial replacement of the meaning; replacing the onomatopoeia with the root of the corresponding verb. Common in translation practice is the addition and removal of certain elements (onomatopoeia included), which is generally not approved, but is not a drawback provided that the author’s intention is followed. Often the translator has to combine strategies to achieve an accurate and expressive result.