Leopardus Geoffroyi Research Articles

Toxocariasis in Carnivora from Argentinean Patagonia: Species molecular identification, hosts, and geographical distribution.

Twenty four specimens of seven species belonging to the families Felidae, Mustelidae, and Canidae were obtained in Lanín and Nahuel Huapi National Parks from March 1996 to April 2016. Specimens were processed by necropsy in order to contribute to the knowledge of toxocariasis in wild carnivores of Argentinean Patagonia. The only Puma concolor and the seven Leopardus geoffroyi were positive for Toxocara cati. Polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) of the ITS-1 region from larval and adult DNA was carried out to confirm parasite species identification. This is the first molecular determination of T. cati from wild felids in Argentina and the study also fill gaps about the spatial distribution and hosts for Toxocara cati.

Small spotted bodies with multiple specific mitochondrial DNAs: existence of diverse and differentiated tigrina lineages or species (Leopardus spp: Felidae, Mammalia) throughout Latin America

We analysed two sets of mitochondrial (mt) DNA data from tigrinas (traditionally, Leopardus tigrinus) we sampled in Costa Rica, Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, northwestern and northeastern Argentina and southern Brazil. Additionally, the analysis included some GenBank sequences from southern, central and northeastern Brazil. The first mt set (mt ATP8+mt 16S rRNA with 41 tigrina) revealed the existence of seven different tigrina-like haplogroups. They could represent, at least, 4–6 different tigrina species following the Phylogenetic Species Concept (PSC). In the second mt set (mitogenomics with 18 tigrinas), we detected six different tigrina-like haplogroups. They could represent 4–5 different tigrina species – including a possible full new species, which has gone previously unnoticed to the world of science both morphologic and molecularly. Coat patterns of several of these different tigrinas support the molecular differences. We also detected intense hybridization in many Andean tigrina with margays (Leopardus wiedii) and ocelots (Leopardus pardalis) as well as hybridization of one Bolivian tigrina with Leopardus geoffroyi. Similar hybridization was found for many of the southern Brazilian tigrina (Leopardus guttulus). All of the temporal split estimates for these tigrina haplogroups, together with those of the Leopardus species recognized to date, began in the late Pliocene but mostly occurred during the Pleistocene. In agreement with the existence of multiple species within the traditional L. tigrinus species, we detected strong and significant spatial structure in the two mt data sets. There were clear circular clines. A major part of the analyses detected more genetic resemblance between the Central American + trans Andean Colombian and Ecuadorian tigrina (L. oncilla) with the most geographically distant tigrina from central and southern Brazil (L. guttulus; pure individuals not hybridized with L. geoffroyi). In comparison, the Andean tigrina taxa had intermediate geographical origins but were highly genetically differentiated both from the Central American + trans Andean Colombian-Ecuadorian tigrina and from the central and southern Brazilian tigrina.

Carnivore occurrence: do interview-based surveys produce unreliable results?

AbstractInterviews with local people have been widely used by biologists as a cost-effective approach to studying certain topics in wildlife ecology and conservation. However, doubts still exist about the validity and quality of the information gathered, especially in studies targeting cryptic or elusive species, such as carnivores. We assessed the reliability of interviews (n = 155) in detecting the presence of three species of carnivores with different characteristics, by comparing interview results with data obtained through camera trapping surveys at 52 sites in central Argentina. The degree of concordance between methods was low for Geoffroy's cat Leopardus geoffroyi and especially for the puma Puma concolor. However, Geoffroy's cats were detected more frequently by camera traps than interviews, whereas the opposite was true for pumas. For the pampas fox Pseudalopex gymnocercus, a less elusive species, we observed a high degree of concordance and a similar probability of occurrence between methods. Our results indicate that data obtained by interviewing local inhabitants should be used with caution because the information about species presence provided by local people may be inaccurate and biased.

Species-Specific Responses of Carnivores to Human-Induced Landscape Changes in Central Argentina.

The role that mammalian carnivores play in ecosystems can be deeply altered by human-driven habitat disturbance. While most carnivore species are negatively affected, the impact of habitat changes is expected to depend on their ecological flexibility. We aimed to identify key factors affecting the habitat use by four sympatric carnivore species in landscapes of central Argentina. Camera trapping surveys were carried out at 49 sites from 2011 to 2013. Each site was characterized by 12 habitat attributes, including human disturbance and fragmentation. Four landscape gradients were created from Principal Component Analysis and their influence on species-specific habitat use was studied using Generalized Linear Models. We recorded 74 events of Conepatus chinga, 546 of Pseudalopex gymnocercus, 193 of Leopardus geoffroyi and 45 of Puma concolor. We found that the gradient describing sites away from urban settlements and with low levels of disturbance had the strongest influence. L. geoffroyi was the only species responding significantly to the four gradients and showing a positive response to modified habitats, which could be favored by the low level of persecution by humans. P. concolor made stronger use of most preserved sites with low proportion of cropland, even though the species also used sites with an intermediate level of fragmentation. A more flexible use of space was found for C. chinga and P. gymnocercus. Our results demonstrate that the impact of human activities spans across this guild of carnivores and that species-specific responses appear to be mediated by ecological and behavioral attributes.

Hábitos alimentarios del gato montés (Leopardus geoffroyi) en agroecosistemas de Buenos Aires, Argentina

Geoffroy's cat ( Leopardus geoffroyi ), a small wild cat of South America, showed in the last years a decline in population abundance mainly related to both habitat destruction and hunting. The increasing human population densities and the consequent demand for food and natural resources will rapidly erode and fragment its remaining habitats. In Argentina most studies about Geoffroy's cat diet have been conducted in protected areas or in their surroundings, while there are no studies conducted in purely agricultural systems. We described the diet composition of Leopardus geoffroyi and its seasonal variations in an agricultural ecosystem to contribute knowledge of its ecology and natural history. The study was carried out from spring 2008 to spring 2011. A total of 494 scats were analyzed and at least 695 prey-items were identified. The diet included 81.58% of mammal prey, representing 93.32% of the potential biomass ingested. Within mammals, the principal prey were rodents, representing 79.57% of the total prey items and 59.39% of the total potential biomass consumed. Small rodents account for a great proportion of prey items, while larger species, as the caviid Cavia aperea , contributed more biomass. The diet plasticity may enhance the persistence of Geoffroy's cat populations in variable and anthropized ecosystems.

Medium- and large-sized mammals in a steppic savanna area of the Brazilian Pampa: survey and conservation issues of a poorly known fauna.

The wildlife of the Brazilian Pampa is threatened by large-scale habitat loss, due in particular to the expansion of soybean cultivation and the conversion of grasslands areas into extensive areas of silviculture. It is essential to study how the mammal fauna copes with the highly fragmented, human-influenced, non-protected landscape. Our study presents the results of a survey of the large- and medium-sized mammals of a typical human-influenced steppic savanna area of the Pampa biome. The survey was conducted exclusively with the use of camera traps over a period of 16 months. The relative frequencies of species in the area were evaluated. We recorded 18 species, some of them locally threatened (Tamandua tetradactyla, Alouatta caraya, Leopardus colocolo, Leopardus geoffroyi, Leopardus wiedii, Puma yagouaroundi, Mazama gouazoubira and Cuniculus paca). Several species were found to thrive in the area; however, many species were considered rare, and undoubtedly new species could be recorded if we continued the sampling. Our results contribute to the knowledge of faunal diversity in the Pampa biome and associated habitats, warn about threats and provide support for conservation measures.

Molecular and morphologic characterization of Sarcocystis felis (Apicomplexa: Sarcocystidae) in South American wild felids from Brazil

Wild felids are thought to share parasites with domestic cats. However, little is known of the coccidian parasites of wild felids. We investigated the presence of Sarcocystis spp. in tissues of 6 species of 90 Neotropical small felids killed in road accidents in the state of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil by using microscopic and molecular techniques. Formalin-fixed tissues from 28 felids were examined, and Sarcocystis felis-like sarcocysts were detected in 4 wild cats (2 Puma yagouaroundi and 2 Leopardus guttulus). By transmission electron microscopy, sarcocysts from a P. yagouaroundi were identical to S. felis from domestic cats in the USA. Direct sequencing of PCR amplicons resulted the unambiguous sequences of the ITS-1 region from 18 of the 31 PCR positive wild cats; 5 sequences from each P. yagouaroundi, and Leopardus geoffroyi, 4 sequences from L. guttulus, and 2 sequences from each Leopardus wiedii, and Leopardus colocolo. Sequences analysis of ITS-1 region revealed the highest identiy (97–99%) with that of previously describe isolates of S. felis from domestic cats in the USA and identified them as S. felis. Tissues of 1 Leopardus pardalis tested by PCR and histology were negative. The phylogenetic relationship indicated that S. felis is quite different to species which employ opossums as their definitive host. This is the first report of S. felis infection in small wild felids from Brazil.

Refined assessment of the geographic distribution of Geoffroy's cat (Leopardus geoffroyi) (Mammalia: Felidae) in the Neotropics

AbstractUnderstanding the fine‐scale geographic distribution of a species has applications in biogeography, ecology, evolution and conservation. Species distribution models (SDM) have been widely used to predict geographic and climatic ranges of species. Geoffroy's cat Leopardus geoffroyi is a small felid of least concern that occupies a wide variety of habitat types in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Paraguay and Uruguay. We evaluated the fine‐scale distribution of Geoffroy's cat at the sub‐continental level, estimated its current extent and area of occurrence and discussed the current and potential ranges developed with SDM. On the basis of species occurrences (n = 1502) and large‐scale environmental data, two model types (‘environmental’ and ‘land cover’) were developed using MaxEnt. The estimated extent of occurrence of Geoffroy's cat was 3 180 664 km2, but the potential area of occurrence predicted by our environmental model was 70% larger due to areas with high suitability (i.e. >0.5) compared to the species’ current range. The most important bioclimatic factors affecting Geoffroy's cat presence were temperature seasonality, mean temperature of the coldest quarter and annual precipitation. Two recent records obtained outside the known distribution of the species fell within the high‐suitability area (i.e. >0.5) predicted by our model. Our SDM suggest that this habitat‐generalist felid is probably expanding its distribution range by taking advantage of changes in human land use.

Patterns of coexistence between two mesocarnivores in northern Patagonia in the presence of invasive hares and anthropogenic disturbance

AbstractWe analysed coexistence patterns between two mesocarnivores, Geoffroy's cat (Leopardus geoffroyi: Felidae) and culpeo fox (Pseudalopex culpaeus: Canidae), in northern Patagonia, Argentina. We examined spatial distribution influenced by land cover, anthropogenic disturbance and invasive hare presence, and analysed temporal activity patterns and dietary composition. If competitive exclusion accounts for carnivore coexistence in this system, we predicted segregation would occur in one or more of these aspects as a mechanism for coexistence. We performed camera trapping in Nahuel Huapi National Park, from February to May 2012 and January to April 2013. Using camera detections, we analysed spatial patterns with co‐occupancy modelling and temporal patterns by fitting kernel density estimates and measuring overlap. We performed a dietary meta‐analysis using available literature and performed a discriminant function analysis of diet categories between species. We observed high spatial and temporal overlap between Geoffroy's cats and culpeo foxes. We found no evidence of segregation in relation to land cover occupancy, anthropogenic disturbance, invasive hare occurrence or activity patterns. Though both species consumed predominantly small and medium mammals, Geoffroy's cats consumed more birds, reptiles and amphibians, and culpeo foxes consumed more large mammals, carrion and plant material; coexistence between these two carnivores in this Patagonian protected area appears to be facilitated by diet segregation.

Recurrent evolution of melanism in South American felids.

Morphological variation in natural populations is a genomic test bed for studying the interface between molecular evolution and population genetics, but some of the most interesting questions involve non-model organisms that lack well annotated reference genomes. Many felid species exhibit polymorphism for melanism but the relative roles played by genetic drift, natural selection, and interspecies hybridization remain uncertain. We identify mutations of Agouti signaling protein (ASIP) or the Melanocortin 1 receptor (MC1R) as independent causes of melanism in three closely related South American species: the pampas cat (Leopardus colocolo), the kodkod (Leopardus guigna), and Geoffroy’s cat (Leopardus geoffroyi). To assess population level variation in the regions surrounding the causative mutations we apply genomic resources from the domestic cat to carry out clone-based capture and targeted resequencing of 299 kb and 251 kb segments that contain ASIP and MC1R, respectively, from 54 individuals (13–21 per species), achieving enrichment of ~500–2500-fold and ~150x coverage. Our analysis points to unique evolutionary histories for each of the three species, with a strong selective sweep in the pampas cat, a distinctive but short melanism-specific haplotype in the Geoffroy’s cat, and reduced nucleotide diversity for both ancestral and melanism-bearing chromosomes in the kodkod. These results reveal an important role for natural selection in a trait of longstanding interest to ecologists, geneticists, and the lay community, and provide a platform for comparative studies of morphological variation in other natural populations.

Habitat-specific demography and conservation of Geoffroy's cats in a human-dominated landscape

Abstract The understanding of the spatial structure and dynamics of populations can guide conservation decisions, but studies of this type focused on small (< 7-kg) carnivores are rare. We compared survival, reproduction, and dispersal of radiocollared Geoffroy's cats (Leopardus geoffroyi) in a protected area and adjacent cattle ranches in Argentina to assess the effects of livestock management and its associated disturbances (i.e., hunting by humans) on the demography of this felid. Thirteen cats in the park and 13 in the ranches were radiotracked for up to 556 days in 2007–2008. We evaluated the Geoffroy's cat population trajectory at the landscape level using a stage-structured, stochastic matrix model based on our estimated vital rates. The study occurred during a prolonged drought, likely affecting estimated vital rates. Survival in the ranches was 52% lower than in the park; mortalities were due to intraguild predation in the park and were human-related in the ranches. Dispersal from the ranches was...

Toxoplasma gondii in free-ranging wild small felids from Brazil: Molecular detection and genotypic characterization

Brazil harbors the largest number of wild Neotropical felid species, with ten of the twelve species recorded in the American continent. Although these animals are considered to be definitive hosts for Toxoplasma gondii, there are few descriptions of the parasite in these species. Here, we performed a molecular detection of T. gondii by amplification of the marker ITS-1 from tissue samples obtained from 90 free-ranging wild small Neotropical felids from Rio Grande do Sul – Brazil. Of the sampled animals, 34.4% (n=31) were positive including the species Puma yagouaroundi – jaguarondi (9/22), Leopardus geoffroyi – Geoffroy's cat (6/22), Leopardus tigrinus – oncilla (8/28), Leopardus wiedii – margay (6/10), Leopardus pardalis – ocelot (1/1) and Leopardus colocolo – Pampas cat (1/7). Toxoplasma DNA was detected with a frequency of 14.6% (63/433) in primary samples of tongue (16/56), brain (8/43), skeletal muscle (15/83), heart (7/63), diaphragm (3/56), vitreous humor (2/44), eye muscle (6/44) and eyeball (6/44). Multilocus PCR-RFLP genotyping of eleven small Neotropical felids using the molecular markers SAG1, 5′3′SAG2, alt. SAG2, SAG3, BTUB, GRA6, c22-8, c29-2, L358, PK1, Apico and CS3 allowed the partial characterization of eight genotypes. We fully characterized two new genotypes that have not been described previously in Brazil (Lw#31Tn from L. wiedii and Py#21Sm from P. yagouaroundi) and one genotype Py#56Br from P. yagouaroundi that has been described previously in isolates from cats, dogs and capybaras from São Paulo state. This study constitutes the first detection and genotypic characterization of T. gondii in free-ranging felids in Brazil, demonstrating the occurrence of the parasite in wild populations and suggesting its potential transmissibility to humans and other domestic and wild animals.

Toxocara cati (Nematoda, Ascarididae) in different wild feline species in Brazil: new host records

This is the first detailed description of Toxocara cati parasitizing felines in South America. Seventeen run over wild felines (Leopardus colocolo, Leopardus geoffroyi, Leopardus tigrinus, and Puma yagouaroundi) were collected from different towns in the State of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. The morphometry of males and females allowed the identification of specimens as being T. cati. The helminths were found in the stomach and intestine of hosts with prevalences of 66.6% in L. colocolo, L. geoffroyi, and L. tigrinus; and 60% in P. yagouaroundi. The ecological parameters were calculated for each host and L. colocolo had the highest infection intensity (22.5 helminths/ host). This is the first report of T. cati parasitizing four wild felines species in southern Brazil, besides a new record of this parasite for two host species.

EXPOSURE TO SELECTED PATHOGENS IN GEOFFROY’S CATS AND DOMESTIC CARNIVORES FROM CENTRAL ARGENTINA

Wild carnivores share a high percentage of parasites and viruses with closely related domestic carnivores. Because of increased overlap and potential contact with domestic species, we conducted a retrospective serosurvey for 11 common carnivore pathogens in 40 Geoffroy's cats (Leopardus geoffroyi) sampled between 2000 and 2008 within or near two protected areas in central Argentina (Lihué Calel National Park, La Pampa, and Campos del Tuyú National Park, Buenos Aires), as well as five domestic cats and 11 domestic dogs from catde ranches adjacent to Lihué Calel Park. Geoffroy's cats had detectable antibody to canine distemper virus (CDV), feline calicivirus (FCV), feline coronavirus, feline panleukopenia virus (FPV), Toxoplasma gondii, Leptospira interrogans (serovars Ictero/Icter and Ballum), and Dirofilaria immitis. None of the wild cats had antibodies to feline herpesvirus, feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV), feline leukemia virus, or rabies virus. Domestic dogs had antibodies to CDV, canine adenovirus, canine herpesvirus, and canine parvovirus. Antibodies to FPV, FCV, FIV, and T. gondii were found in domestic cats. We provide the first data on exposure of free-ranging Geoffroy's cats to pathogens at two sites within the core area of the species distribution range, including the first report of antibodies to CDV in this species. We encourage continued monitoring for diseases in wild and domestic carnivores as well as preventive health care for domestic animals, particularly in park buffer zones where overlap is greatest.

SEROLOGIC SURVEY FORLEPTOSPIRASPP. IN CAPTIVE NEOTROPICAL FELIDS IN FOZ DO IGUAÇU, PARANÁ, BRAZIL

Leptospirosis is a bacterial zoonosis of worldwide distribution and is endemic in tropical countries, where rodents and other wild mammals are abundant and may act as reservoirs. Leptospirosis has become a concern in captive wild animals, due mostly to their exposure to contaminated urine or environment. Although domestic cats (Felis catus) have been reported refractory to leptospirosis, serology and disease in captive wild felids is still unclear. In this study 57 adult, clinically healthy felids, including 1 Geoffroy's cat (Leopardus geoffroyi), 3 jaguarundis (Puma yagouaroundi), 17 margays (Leopardus wiedii), 22 little spotted cats (Leopardus tigrinus), and 14 ocelots (Leopardus pardalis) kept in captivity at the Sanctuary at the Itaipu Binacional hydroelectric power plant (Bela Vista Biological Sanctuary), Foz do Iguacu City, Paraná State, Brazil, were serologically surveyed for the presence of antibodies against 28 serovars of Leptospira spp. by microagglutination test (MAT). Two animals (3.5%) were seropositive: one male ocelot to the serovar Cynopteri (titer 100) and one female margay to Autumnalis (100) and Butembo (200). The captive-born, 5-yr-old ocelot had been solitary housed in an individual cage. The approximately 21-yr-old wild-caught margay was also kept individually. None of the tested animals showed signs ofleptospirosis. During a study conducted 4 yr previously in the same facility, this particular margay also tested positive for the same two serovars, among others. The present study indicates that the felids tested for Leptospira spp. by MAT were exposed to serovars, but did not demonstrate clinical signs of disease. Comparison with a previous study suggests that serovar titers may vary over time and that leptospirosis dynamics remains unclear in wild felids.

Taphonomic analysis of rodent bone accumulations produced by Geoffroy's cat (Leopardus geoffroyi, Carnivora, Felidae) in Central Argentina

Rodent prey remains recovered from Geoffroy's cat (Leopardus geoffroyi) scats were analyzed in order to identify taphonomic features produced by this predator. The analysis includes a year-long sampling discriminated by the seasons. Modifications produced by digestion are heavy. Taphonomic variables in samples discriminated by the seasons did not show major differences with respect to the total sample; thus, scats collected in any season clearly show the modifications on the bones of prey rodents made by Geoffroy's cats. The results presented here and its interpretation could be extrapolated to an analysis of zooarchaeological or paleontological assemblages.

Differences in diet and trophic interactions of Patagonian carnivores between areas with mostly native or exotic prey

The prey base for Patagonian carnivores has been altered greatly over the past 150 years due to widespread overgrazing by livestock, invasions by exotic wildlife, and hunting. On ranches in northern Patagonia carnivores consume mostly exotic species, and native herbivores are ecologically extinct in their role as prey. In this study we compare diets of the culpeo (Lycalopex culpaeus), chilla (L. griseus), puma (Puma concolor), Geoffroy's cat (Leopardus geoffroyi), colocolo (L. colocolo), and hog-nosed skunks (Conepatus chinga and C. humboldtii) in a reserve with a mostly native prey base to their diets on the ranches, and evaluate how differences in prey bases affect trophic interactions among carnivores. Carnivores in the reserve consumed mostly native prey. Dietary overlap among carnivores was not significant on the reserve, but was highly significant on the ranches. This homogenization of diets where densities of native species are reduced could lead to stronger negative interactions among carnivores, altering the composition of the carnivore assemblage to the detriment of the more specialized species. Study of carnivore diets may be a relatively quick way to evaluate the conservation status and ecological functionality of prey assemblages in Patagonia and other areas where these have been altered.

Habitat use by carnivores at different spatial scales in a plantation forest landscape in Patagonia, Argentina

Forest plantations are an increasingly important source of industrial wood around the world, and the design and management of plantations can greatly influence the relationship with wildlife. The aim of this study was to examine the effects of conversion of native open vegetation to conifer plantations on mammalian carnivore assemblages in NW Patagonia, Argentina. We conducted camera-trap surveys at 69 sites and assessed composition of carnivore assemblages and habitat use in conifer plantations and native vegetation. We also evaluated habitat characteristics at stand and landscape scales related to presence of carnivores. Four species of carnivores were detected: Lycalopex culpaeus, Conepatus chinga, Puma concolor, and Leopardus geoffroyi. L. culpaeus and C. chinga used continuous native vegetation most frequently, but also used dense conifer plantations and tended to be more abundant in firebreaks and sparse plantations than in dense plantations. L. geoffroyi was almost fully restricted to continuous native vegetation, but was also detected in firebreaks and native vegetation remnants between plantations; this species was never detected in plantations. P. concolor was detected in all habitat types and did not exhibit any preference. The presence of carnivores was associated with understory diversity, tree density, and prey availability at the stand scale, and with amount of area with native vegetation at the landscape scale. Our results suggest that management decisions at the stand and landscape scales can influence habitat quality for wildlife in the region.

Bone modification and destruction patterns of leporid carcasses by Geoffroy’s cat (Leopardus geoffroyi): An experimental study

This paper characterizes the bone modification patterns on leporid carcasses generated by captive Geoffroy’s cats (Leopardus geoffroyi). The modification pattern from non-ingested remains is described in terms of anatomical representation, breakage, and tooth marks. Results from this experimental study suggest that Geoffroy’s cat tends to mostly destroy ribs and vertebrae. A high proportion of fractures were registered in the scapulas, cranium, and the epiphysis of long bones. The innominate, scapula, mandible, and long bones showed high frequencies of tooth marks, dominated by pits and punctures. If the activity of this particular predator is identified in fossil assemblages, the differential inter- and intra-bone survival produced by this agent on small mammal prey should be taken into consideration when discussing anatomical part representation.

Effects of livestock on the feeding and spatial ecology of Geoffroy’s cat

We compared diet composition, prey selection, home-range size, daily movements, and habitat preference of Geoffroy’s cats ( Leopardus geoffroyi) between cattle ranches and an adjacent national park in scrublands of Argentina. Although overall prey abundance was higher in the park than in the ranches, diet composition was similar between sites, and small rodents were the most common prey item found in Geoffroy’s cat feces in both sites. Geoffroy’s cats selectively preyed on sigmodontines in the ranches throughout the year and in the park during spring, when the abundance of this prey type was the lowest for this site. Mean daily movements of radio-collared Geoffroy’s cats in the park were significantly shorter than those of cats in the ranches. Differences in habitat use between sites reflected differences in the availability of different habitat types, and Geoffroy’s cats exhibited different patterns of habitat selection according to the site and the scale considered. Changes in home-range size and overlap were also apparent, but the small sample sizes and the short period during which individuals could be monitored may cloud the actual magnitude of these responses. Geoffroy’s cats exhibited behavioral plasticity, as the two subpopulations in close proximity had such contrasting trophic and spatial ecology.