The study titled “Rehabilitation v. Punishment: Evaluating Effectiveness in Reducing Recidivism” critically analyzes the continuous conflict between punitive and rehabilitative measures within the criminal justice system. It traces the historical development of imprisonment from retaliation to correctional reform, examining the theoretical and conceptual foundations of punishment, rehabilitation, and recidivism. Under the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita, 2023, the study examines India’s current legal system, emphasizing both reformative measures like probation, parole, open prisons, and vocational training as well as punishment-based measures like imprisonment, fines, and the death penalty. The study also highlights the shortcomings of strictly punitive approaches in reducing reoffending through a comparative analysis and promotes a well-rounded, integrated strategy that include opportunities for reformation and reintegration with discipline. A paradigm shift towards restorative justice is reflected in recent legislative changes, such as the formal inclusion of community service as a punishment. The study concludes that in order to effectively lower recidivism and foster long-term social harmony and justice, offenders must be treated as reformable individuals who receive education, counseling, and skill development.

The purpose of the study is to discuss the issue of public-legal rationing of trade in foreign exchange and investment gold. The study discusses selected provisions of the Probate Law, the Foreign Exchange Law, the Law on Goods and Services Tax and the Law on Counteracting Money Laundering and Terrorist Financing. The thesis is formulated that the rationing of trade in foreign exchange and investment gold should ensure the security of trade, while protecting the fiscal objectives of the State. However, it is necessary to shape the record-keeping and control instruments in such a way as not to violate the confidence of the administered in the state authorities and limit the grey market. The provisions of the Foreign Exchange Law were assessed positively. It has been proposed to consider legislative changes limiting record-keeping obligations in the trading of investment gold. The concept of foreign exchange gold and investment gold was comprehensively discussed, noting the differences between the definitions.

The dynamic development of information technology poses new challenges for the judiciary but also opens up opportunities to modernize existing procedures. One of the key areas of these transformations is the electronic form of service of court documents in civil proceedings. The article analyses the latest legislative changes that fundamentally transform the way documents are served by courts, parties and attorneys. The author attempts to answer questions about the scope, effectiveness and legal consequences of electronic service, pointing out both its potential to streamline proceedings and the inadequacies that can have serious procedural consequences. Particular emphasis is placed on analysing the timing of service, the relationship between technical delivery and legal effect, and the compatibility of the new solutions with the principle of due process. The article attempts to assess whether digital technologies are capable of replacing traditional forms of service, and identifies areas that require further legislative and interpretative work. The text will be of interest to both legal theorists and practitioners seeking an answer to the question of how to safely and effectively implement digital solutions in the civil procedure.

Unlike the situation in some other jurisdictions, there is no published guidance regarding when crypto-assets can be considered as securities under Turkish law. For this reason, this study deals with the question of when crypto-assets are considered as securities under current Turkish law and the implications of such consideration. The analysis accompanies a comparative overview of the regulatory responses in some relevant jurisdictions. On the other hand, it reviews the recent Turkish legislative changes, which were passed in June 2024 and provide clarifications on the issuance of securities in the form of crypto-assets, the licensing of crypto-asset service providers (CASPs), and the Turkish regulator's enforcement powers against crypto-asset activities. The conclusion evaluates the position in Turkey in comparison to the UK, EU and US from a regulatory standpoint and identifies areas that require further clarification.

provisions, in particular defining the scope of substantive (literal/linguistic) and functional (systemic/teleological) review. The author presents an analysis of the impact of judicial interpretation of tax law provisions on the manner and scope of the creation of new legal norms. The final aspect analysed will determine the scope of the potential creative role of new legal norms directly through the case law of administrative courts and the Supreme Administrative Court, particularly in the field of tax law.Judicial review of legal interpretation and the case law of administrative courts do not, in principle, create “new law.” However, an effective legislator should draw on the experience of court judgments when creating legal provisions. Case law that does not formally play a law-making role – interpretation provided by courts in the process of applying the law – should, and does, influence the law-making process. The high-quality case law of administrative courts allows for the identification of various errors by the legislator and often forces it to make profound, systemic legislative changes or correct flaws in individual detailed solutions. Administrative courts are much closer to the factual situations that may arise during the application of the law. This allows for rational amendment of regulations, as they have already been verified numerous times through case law.Referring to the mechanisms by which administrative case law “shapes new norms”, particularly in the field of tax law, it is important to cite the principles of interpretation used in this regard – systemic and functional interpretation, often broadening or narrowing the meaning of a provision, creating new standards of conduct in practice. On the other hand, case law plays a crucial role in filling existing legal gaps. In the case of unclear or imprecise provisions, administrative courts “clarify” rules that the legislator left undefined in tax law – either intentionally or as a legislative flaw (e.g., the concept of “taxpayer due diligence”). Thirdly, it is necessary to refer to the supervisory role of case law in tax matters in terms of compliance with the Constitution and European Union law.

The article addresses the legal nature of municipal council resolutions concerning coun cillors’ allowances and reimbursement of travel expenses. The aim of the study is to present the evolution of legal opinions on their classification – from being regarded as internal administrative acts to being recognized as local law. The research applies the dogmatic-legal method, supplemented with an analysis of case law and a case study. Particular attention is given to the shift in administrative courts’ jurisprudence, which initially treated such resolutions as internal acts, but now consistently qualify them as local law. The analysis demonstrates that, despite the absence of legislative changes, judicial decisions have led to an evolution in the perception, scope and binding force of such reso lutions. A case study of resolutions adopted in the municipalities belonging to the Union of Polish Metropolises highlights differences in the practice of their publication in regional official journals. In many regions these resolutions are still regarded as internal acts and not published, a practice accepted by supervisory authorities (voivodes). The findings therefore indicate that, despite a well-established line of administrative case law, significant discrepancies remain in the approach taken by supervisory bodies.

This paper examines the death penalty through a public health framework, analysing its systemic impacts on individual and community well-being. Drawing on recent legislative changes in Malaysia, including the 2023 abolition of mandatory capital punishment, the study identifies three critical pathways through which the death penalty threatens public health: prolonged confinement of death row inmates, miscarriages of justice, and punitive drug policies. The research highlights how capital punishment creates trauma that extends beyond death row prisoners and affects families, prison staff, legal professionals, and communities. It emphasises the death penalty's disproportionate impact on marginalised groups, including women, sexual minorities, and individuals with disabilities, who face compounded discrimination in the judicial system. The paper concludes that abolishing the death penalty is not merely a legal imperative but a public health necessity, recommending a shift toward evidence-based, health-centred approaches that prioritise rehabilitation, harm reduction, and restorative justice.

This paper analyzes the legal collisions within Article 309 of the Tax Code of the Russian Federation (RF TC), which governs the taxation of income from international transportation, as well as the issues concerning income sourcing and double taxation avoidance agreements. The research investigates conflicts between the provisions of the RF TC and international agreements. After the suspension of double taxation avoidance agreements with “unfriendly” countries, income from international transportation began to be taxed in Russia under the general rules of the RF TC, which increased the tax burden on foreign carriers and heightened the risks of tax disputes. Particular attention is paid to the analysis of recent (2023–2025) judicial practice, which demonstrates a trend towards stricter taxation of income of foreign carriers and an evolution in the interpretation of Article 309 of the RF TC. The analysis reveals a contradiction between clauses 1 and 2 of Article 309 of the RF TC, leading to uncertainty in the taxation of income of foreign carriers. It is shown that courts and tax authorities interpret these provisions differently, creating risks of double taxation and tax disputes. The study considers prospects for legislative changes, including draft federal law No. 1026190-8, aimed at eliminating the broad interpretation of preferential norms. Using comparative legal, formal legal and systemic methods, the authors propose pathways to resolve the identified legal collisions to ensure compliance with the principle of the economic basis of taxation. It is substantiated that the current system for taxing international transportation income requires adjustments at both the legislative and judicial practice levels.

Purpose. Based on the analysis of the evolution of Euro 1-6 standards, to assess the prospects for the implementation of international practices for reducing automobile emissions in Ukraine, taking into account the needs of fleet modernization, and to develop practical proposals for the modernization of state policy in the field of automobile environmental protection. Methodology. A set of methods was used: comparative analysis (to assess differences in approaches to reducing emissions in the EU, the USA, and Japan), content analysis (of regulations and standards), generalization (of the effectiveness of implemented technologies), and methods of analysis and synthesis to substantiate practical solutions in the field of technological and environmental safety. Results. It was found that modern technologies, such as three-component catalytic converters, DPF filters, and SCR systems, can reduce CO, CH, NOₓ, and PM emissions by 80-95%. However, in Ukraine, due to the outdated vehicle fleet, lack of technical control, and frequent shutdowns of cleaning systems (EGR, DPF), these solutions are being implemented in fragments. A set of measures is proposed to reduce the negative impact of motor vehicles on the environment and increase the level of industrial safety, in particular: mandatory inspections for compliance with Euro 5-6 standards, the creation of a single database of technical inspections, economic incentives for the transition to electric vehicles, the development of charging station infrastructure, and a national program for the renewal of public transport. Scientific novelty: environmental, technological, and safety approaches to the analysis of transport emissions are combined, and a set of measures for the modernization of motor vehicles in Ukraine is developed, including mandatory emissions tests, financial incentives, infrastructure solutions, and legislative changes. Practical significance. The analysis of the evolution of Euro 1-6 standards, taking into account their advantages and disadvantages, as well as the proposed set of measures, will contribute to the formation of an effective state policy on controlling vehicle emissions to improve air quality, health, and safety of the population. The introduction of automated emission monitoring systems and low-emission zones will reduce the cost of monitoring and repairing the vehicle fleet. The development of infrastructure for electric transport and the renewal of public transport will increase the sustainability of the transport system.

The article examines problematic aspects of ensuring the right to liberty and personal inviolability under martial law in Ukraine. The topic's relevance is determined by legislative changes that provide for the de facto "non-alternative" application of detention for specific categories of criminal offenses, as well as the need to assess their compliance with constitutional guarantees of human rights. The article aims to determine the consistency between the provisions of Parts 6 and 8 of Art. 176 of the Criminal Procedure Code of Ukraine and the constitutional guarantees of the right to liberty and personal inviolability. The study employs dialectical, formal-legal, formal-logical, analytical, and synthetic methods, which enable a comprehensive assessment of legislative approaches, the position of the Constitutional Court of Ukraine, and law enforcement practice. The study's results demonstrated that the formal existence of an alternative in the form of bail does not eliminate the judicial tendency to perceive detention as the only possible preventive measure for the category of proceedings specified in Parts 6 and 8 of Art. 176 of the CPC. While recognizing that the legislative approach reflected in these provisions may be considered permissible from the standpoint of conventional standards and justified by the need for effective counteraction to armed aggression, the authors conclude that the current norms of the CPC are inconsistent with those constitutional guarantees that cannot be restricted even under martial law (Art. 29 of the Constitution of Ukraine). It seems promising to explore the development of an optimal model for striking a balance between public interest and the observance of fundamental rights in emergency legal regimes in the future.

The article is devoted to the theoretical and legal analysis of innovation policy as an integral and priority component of the state's economic policy in the context of contemporary transformations in the national and global economy. The relevance of the study is determined by the intensification of global technological competition, the need to ensure Ukraine's economic and defence stability, as well as institutional changes in national legislation, in particular, the repeal of the Economic Code of Ukraine, which for a long time performed a systematising function in the field of state regulation of economic activity. The methodological basis of the article consists of systemic, formal-logical, and formal-legal methods, which enabled the study of the relationship between the legal architecture of economic policy and the effectiveness of innovation processes. The work emphasises that the absence of a coherent codified core of economic policy and the definitive uncertainty of innovation policy create a significant institutional vacuum, which complicates the coordination of state regulation, weakens horizontal coordination between authorities, and hinders strategic technological development. Based on an analysis of the Constitution of Ukraine, current laws, subordinate legislation, and doctrinal approaches, the fragmentation of the legal framework for both economic and innovation policy has been identified, which negatively affects the state's ability to ensure the structural modernisation of the economy, stimulate innovation, and support high-tech sectors, in particular the defence-industrial complex. As a result, several proposals were formulated regarding the institutionalization of innovation policy at the legislative level, specifically: the need to establish a comprehensive definition of innovation policy, to incorporate it as a component of state economic policy, and to enhance mechanisms for interdepartmental coordination. It is argued that the institutionalisation of innovation policy is a key prerequisite for economic recovery, ensuring competitiveness, reducing transaction costs, and forming a comprehensive model of the national economic order.

The communities of the Transylvanian Saxons represented a distinct feature of the Transylvanian space and played a major role in the region’s socio-cultural and economic development. This community faced an enormous challenge following the end of the Great War, when Transylvania, formerly part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, was incorporated into Greater Romania (1918). This study employs a case analysis of four Saxon rural communities from Transylvania to reveal the ‘voices’ of some key social actors in village life, namely the priests. Their considerations, preserved in the so-called memorial books [Gedenkbücher] of the Lutheran parishes, provide valuable insights into the various events that affected the communities under their pastoral care. More specifically, this study investigates how the Saxons responded to the realities of the new state and the challenges posed by legislative changes, and how they adapted to the new political system. The research draws on data collected from Gedenkbücher spanning the first decade following the Great Union, specifically from the villages of Alţâna, Cârţa, Pianu de Jos, and Hamba, which were predominantly German at the time. Employing the case study methodology, this research examines the social, economic, and political dimensions of rural Saxon communities, with particular emphasis on the practices associated with the political integration of their members.

This essay explores the challenges of prosecuting crime in the borderlands of the Russian Empire, focusing on the Georgian provinces in the wake of the 1864 Judicial Reform. The requirement that all legal proceedings be conducted in Russian created significant obstacles to the administration of justice, as linguistic barriers hindered the effective evaluation of evidence and judicial decision-making. Georgian jurists, serving as investigators, lawyers, and judges, grappled with these complexities, advocating for solutions rooted in positivist legal principles. Though their efforts did not result in legislative change, their engagement with the legal system reflected an assertion of professional authority and a claim to judicial institutions within the empire.

The article examines contemporary approaches to the legal regulation of taxi aggregators (digital platforms that mediate between passengers and drivers) in the Republic of Kazakhstan, the European Union, the United States, and the Russian Federation. The study covers the latest legislative changes and judicial practice from 2023 to 2025, including key cases: City of New York v. Uber Technologies Inc., C-434/15 Asociación Profesional Elite Taxi v. Uber Spain, and the case of Ospan A.A. v. Glovo Kazakhstan LLP. In the format of a comparative legal analysis, issues of the employment status of drivers (self-employment vs. hired labor), algorithmic management and social and labor guarantees, as well as new approaches to the taxation of digital platforms (e.g., the VAT in the Digital Age (ViDA) package in the EU) are discussed. Special attention is paid to the regulatory framework for the platform economy in Kazakhstan (digital reforms 2023–2025) and Russian legislation (Federal Law No. 580 and amendments 2023–2025). The results show that, despite the global nature of aggregator businesses, legal solutions vary significantly: the EU seeks to ensure labor rights for platform workers through the presumption of employment relationships and the regulation of algorithms, the US relies on local regulation of payment terms and partial judicial mechanisms, while Kazakhstan and Russia are in the process of forming their own regulatory models, which are currently focused more on registration and control than on social protection. In conclusion, recommendations are offered for improving the legal regulation of taxi aggregators, taking into account the balance of interests between platforms, drivers, and society.

Existing research on tourism spatial planning primarily focuses on different political and economic systems (PESs)—but most often within capitalist democracies. However, there is a lack of research examining how frequent changes in PESs (capitalism, socialism and recapitalism) act as critical points, as they affect tourism spatial planning legislation, land use and spatial management. By analysing the spatiotemporal evolution of the Kupari tourist zone in Croatia (1880–2024), we investigate how PES changes act as critical turning points that shape tourism spatial planning and administrative practices. Key results reveal that tourism recovery and resilience are closely linked to the stability of PESs. Frequent PES changes (1) reduce the overall resilience of tourism and its institutions, (2) lead to recurring changes in tourism spatial planning legislation (e.g., ownership and land use) and (3) disrupt the positive correlation between space and tourism development. Frequent changes in PESs are reflected in legislation, as well as in challenges of compromise for issues closely related to tourism and spatial management. Only a stable PES can enable continuous monitoring of legislation and its spatial consequences in real time. An integrated methodology for monitoring legislation, together with a framework for spatial management, offers practical solutions for the sustainable management of tourist areas. These findings provide both scientific evidence and practical strategies for better harmonization of legislation with the resilience of tourism spatial planning on the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea.

Status assessments under Canada’s Wild Salmon Policy, WSP, were developed to meet objectives of maintaining biodiversity at the scale of Conservation Units, CUs, which are groups of wild salmon that cannot easily recolonize if lost because of unique adaptations. However, new legislative requirements in Canada under the Fisheries Act have led to the development of ‘Stock Management Units’ (SMUs) for Pacific salmon that often require assessment at larger scales relevant for fisheries management. Standard approaches of aggregating information across units by summing abundances risk failure to achieve WSP biodiversity objectives. We describe alternative approaches for defining reference points and providing management-oriented advice at the SMU-level that are consistent with objectives related to CU biodiversity and can more explicitly integrate risks associated with environmental change. In an era of sociopolitical change, we further provide visions for the future of inclusive, collaborative approaches to assessing status that bridge a plurality of knowledge systems. These approaches can be supported by new metrics that reflect spatial distribution, diversity at various scales, and the contributions of salmon to the ecosystem.

Abstract This study examines the notions of ‘naturalness’ in Finnish citizen-consumers’ and farmers’ perspectives, through ten focus group discussions, on genetic modification (GM) and new genomic techniques (NGTs) in plant breeding, amidst the current European Union (EU) legislative changes. In this context, the study shows that citizen-consumers’ views on GM plants and NGTs are significantly associated with different notions of ‘naturalness’ that are closely entangled with each other. Some citizen-consumers consider any human intervention as unnatural and unacceptable, while others are open to NGTs if they resemble natural processes or traditional breeding methods. Those who do not explicitly make use of the notion of naturalness are the most open towards all genetic techniques. However, consideration of the use purpose of NGTs can shift views of citizen-consumers. Farmers, in contrast, focus less on naturalness and more on the practical and economic implications of NGTs. Organic farmers expressed concerns about being excluded from the benefits of NGTs. Despite some caution towards transgenesis, most farmers were open to using NGTs due to the pressing challenges they face, such as climate change and economic pressures. The study concludes that different understandings of (un)naturalness are inextricably linked and continuously shape each other, rather than existing independently. This dynamic interdependence, in turn, underlie shifting views of NGTs in different contexts.

Drag has grown in visibility and popularity within 20 years in Southern Utah, despite the rural conservative environment in this part of the state. Members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (LDS) make up the state’s population. These norms are reflected in this cultural phenomenon and greatly impact the LGBT+ community. Utah has passed legislation seeking to limit/remove rights from LGBT+ people. We utilize a small case study of individuals influential in growing the drag community in Southern Utah despite the legal and legislative changes they faced. The study is set within the literature focused upon drag as activism and the development of drag in Utah, coupled with the theoretical framework of Racelighting, White Niceness, and the Utah Bubble. What resulted was a vibrant and welcoming drag community that continues to expand utilizing drag as activism and pedagogy.

For the purposes of this argument, the author analysed the legal provisions on the basis of which local governments perform waste management tasks, with particular emphasis on waste classified as hazardous. The shortcomings of the statutory regulations in this area were demonstrated. The author referred to case law in which local governments raised the issue of the nature of interpretation of the provisions defining the concept of municipal waste in practice. Proposals were presented on how to increase the efficiency of waste management in local government units. The paper concludes with proposals for legislative changes aimed at supporting local governments by introducing a provision into the Waste Act, stipulating that the tasks of the head of the local authority (mayor, city president), which, in the field of waste disposal, do not constitute municipal waste, are tasks within the scope of government administration, which, in accordance with the applicable regulations, are then financed from the state budget.

This study, part of an international Erasmus+ project, investigated the occupational burdens and their relationship with professional burnout among 443 primary school teachers in Warsaw, Poland. Using a comprehensive questionnaire, the research assessed five burden domains (organisational, classroom, parental, staff, and systemic) and two burnout dimensions (exhaustion and disengagement). The results identified systemic conditions - primarily low pay, a lack of societal respect, and frequent legislative changes - as the most intensely perceived burdens. Challenging relationships with parents, marked by their disengagement and high expectations, also emerged as a significant source of strain. Conversely, interpersonal dynamics within schools, particularly with leadership, were reported as least problematic. As hypothesised, all burden domains were positively correlated with burnout. Critically, emotional exhaustion was most strongly linked not to the major systemic issues, but to the cumulative pressure of daily operational demands. These included organisational conditions (e.g., excessive paperwork, diverse student needs) and classroom management challenges. This highlights how routine stressors directly deplete teachers’ energy. The study concludes that while systemic reforms are vital, mitigating teacher burnout requires immediate, school-level interventions to reduce administrative overload, enhance teacher influence on decision-making, and foster shared educational responsibility with parents.