Analytical approaches for the determination of nitrate and nitrite in infant and baby foods: Advances and occurrence.

Edible insects are emerging as sustainable, nutritious 'foods of the future' and are gradually introduced to the European market as novel foods. Ensuring consumer safety and preventing fraud requires legal regulation, which in turn depends on reliable analytical methods. Sensitive, rapid techniques capable of identifying insect species are needed to support enforcement and monitoring of legislation across different food matrices. Powders of 10 insect species, including all four edible insects authorised as novel foods in the European Union, were digested with trypsin without toxic extraction agents. Samples were purified using ZipTip C18 and analysed by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionisation time of flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) in positive reflector mode. Species-specific m/z values were identified using a simple structured query language-based search. Six model mixtures and 10 commercial products were tested with the same workflow to assess genus- and species-level authentication. Six model mixtures and 10 commercial products were authenticated using previously created genus- and species-specific m/z databases. Model mixtures with dominant insect proteins allowed correct genus- and species-level identification (7-20% peptide matches). Closely related species or dominant spectral components increased the misidentification. In the commercial products, identification was adequate for high-insect-content samples, but species assignment was ambiguous or incorrect in products with low insect content (7-10%) and high plant protein content. MALDI-TOF MS enables rapid genus-level insect identification and species-level discrimination, especially when dealing with unprocessed single-species powders. Accurate species assignment depends on insect abundance and matrix complexity of the inspected products. As well, the use of MALDI-TOF MS for species identification of products with low insect content or high plant protein is still limited and may require complementary methods such as LC-MS/MS to achieve unambiguous species identification.

<p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>Context and relevance.</strong> Explanation of the processes of submission to the law is one of the key issues of legal theory influencing the formation of the mechanism of legal regulation. Domestic positivistic dogma of law demonstrates a limited understanding of the socio-psychological aspects of legal behavior. This circumstance determines the need to expand the theoretical substantiation of these processes, including through the experience of alternative legal doctrine. <strong>Objective.</strong> To analyze the evolution of models of submission to the law within the framework of Anglo-American legal positivism in the process of integrating the socio-psychological aspects of legal behavior. <strong>Materials.</strong> The views of key representatives of the direction demonstrate significant diversity from a simplified model of coercion to complex concepts that take into account the cognitive and social mechanisms of legal legitimacy and law-abiding behavior. The concepts under consideration demonstrate the dynamics of development along the transformation line: from the paradigm of fear of punishment to the acceptance of the law as a mandatory established normative practice, with the subsequent affirmation of the important role of rational recognition of authority and the significance of communicative practices and institutional trust. <strong>Results.</strong> It is concluded that these theoretical developments: firstly, reveal the socio-psychological foundations of legal behavior and legal consciousness; secondly, offer new approaches to maintaining law-abiding behavior and preventing deviant behavior. <strong>Conclusions. </strong>The obtained results have significant practical potential in the field of implementing interdisciplinary developments in the field of improving legal education and socialization, developing criteria for the professional activities of officials and increasing the effectiveness of legal influence through mechanisms of law enforcement.</p>

This research aims to analyze the legal arrangements and forms of punishment for minors who are involved in narcotics abuse, as well as to identify the factors that cause children to fall into this action. This research is motivated by the increasing number of cases of narcotics abuse by children, which raises concerns regarding legal protection for children and the effectiveness of the juvenile criminal justice system in Indonesia. The research method used is a normative juridical method with a statutory approach, case studies. Data sources were obtained through literature studies of statutory regulations, literature books, scientific journals. The results of the research show that legal regulations regarding children involved in narcotics abuse have been contained in Law Number 35 of 2009 concerning Narcotics and Law Number 11 of 2012 concerning the Juvenile Criminal Justice System. However, in practice, the approach to punishment towards children still tends to be repressive. Diversion and rehabilitation have not yet become a complete priority. Apart from that, factors such as a non-conducive family environment, peer influence, social pressure, and weak legal education are factors that encourage children to abuse narcotics. This research recommends the need to strengthen the juvenile criminal justice system based on restorative justice, legal education for children and families, as well as cross-sector collaboration in preventing and handling juvenile and narcotics cases.

The article, written from a legal perspective, presents a concise and chronological review of the legal regulations used to secure farmers in old age. The review begins with a brief discussion of the methods of securing farmers’ old age at the end of the serfdom era. In the post-enfranchisement period, peasants, as full landowners, secured their old age through civil law contracts, primarily life annuity agreements and donations. In the 1960s and the first half of the 1970s, three acts were adopted concerning pensions granted to farmers in exchange for transferring their land to the state. The acts adopted in 1977 and 1982, of a pension and disability benefit nature, brought all farmers within a system of compulsory social insurance. All these acts are subjected to a synthetic analysis, with particular attention paid to their ratio legis and their stated objectives. Greater emphasis is placed on the production-related aims of these acts, which, to varying degrees, came to dominate their intended social aims. The article concludes with final remarks drawn from the analysis conducted.

The article is devoted to the analysis of public-private-philanthropic partnership and the improvement of the regulatory and legal regulation of its activities, to create a regulatory basis for attracting charitable funds to socially important investment projects, in particular, regarding rehabilitation, reintegration, preservation and restoration of human capital. The study focuses on the analysis of the current state of the private medical services market in Ukraine and existing cases of involving charitable partners in investment projects in the field of rehabilitation. The preference for the development of public-private-philanthropic partnerships is justified, as opposed to classic public-private partnerships, which are associated with the social significance of rehabilitation problems and insufficient funding. It was found that the activities of rehabilitation centers with the support of charitable partners are aimed not only at the quantity, but also at the quality of rehabilitation, orientation to the best international practices and advanced training of medical personnel. Therefore, such an investment approach is relevant especially in times of unstable economy and social challenges. The purpose of the article is to summarize the practical experience of creating and operating rehabilitation centers on the principles of public-private-philanthropic partnership in Ukraine, and to develop recommendations for improving the regulatory and legal framework to create a favorable legislative framework for the implementation of this model. It was found that today the regulatory and legal framework does not regulate the activities of such partnerships, as they are new to Ukrainian practice and are a response to the challenges of Ukrainian realities. Therefore, the proposals provided for improving the regulatory and legal framework are designed to provide a legislative basis for the development of this investment model. This will allow scaling up successful projects and will contribute to increasing the role of the charitable sector in areas related to the humanitarian dimension, such as: rehabilitation, reintegration, preservation and restoration of human capital. The novelty of the study lies in the attempt to adapt existing regulatory documents to the activities of these partnerships, because despite the lack of special regulatory and legal regulation, partnerships of this type already exist in Ukraine and are innovative. The article uses general scientific and special research methods: case study method, comparative analysis and logical generalization. Their application allowed us to widely explore the issues of the development of public-private-philanthropic partnerships, and to identify their advantages over classical public-private partnerships. Since Ukraine already has successful experience in the functioning of public-private-philanthropic partnerships in the field of rehabilitation, further scaling up of this practice requires the identification of criteria by which institutional support for sanatorium-resort and rehabilitation institutions should be carried out within the framework of this investment model. Therefore, the proposed criteria are designed to intensify the attraction of funds from the charitable partner in those areas that require optimization of the costs of the private partner and the state.

Stefan Glaser’s scholarly work covers a wide range of topics, from the philosophy of punishment – or, more broadly, the philosophy of criminal law – through core issues in criminal law dogmatics, to discussions devoted to the regulations concerning the imposition of penalties, specific crimes, and finally, matters of international criminal law. He also studied procedural issues. In each of these areas, he published a significant number of works, including monographs and commentaries. In his research, he took into account both the philosophical perspective and criminological issues. He applied the dogmatic method with expertise and precision. He addressed issues of fundamental importance to criminal law and criminal procedure. In many respects, he highlighted the shortcomings of existing legal regulations, gaps and regulatory imprecisions, and sought satisfactory solutions to problems that troubled theorists and posed difficulties for practitioners. His works on the philosophy of punishment and the philosophy of criminal law, analysed from the perspective of the philosophy of punishment, are of particular significance, as are his writings on the foundations of liability for joint perpetration in the commission of crime. In his analysis of punishment, he sought to reconcile two opposing approaches: the retributive approach and the utilitarian approach. Although he clearly favoured retributivism, he also recognised certain advantages of the utilitarian approach. In seeking a kind of compromise between these competing approaches, he pointed to proportionate punishment of the perpetrator as the fundamental purpose and meaning of punishment. At the same time, he did not rule out the preventive, protective and rehabilitative functions of punishment. He stipulated that these functions could only be implemented on a subsidiary basis, provided that they did not violate the essential nature of punishment. In the area of liability for joint perpetration, he primarily focused on the paradoxes of the model developed by Juliusz Makarewicz. Recognising the limitations of liability for incitement and assistance, he advocated indirect perpetration as a means of resolving doubtful cases. He justified its place in the Polish criminal law system on the grounds of logic, criminal policy needs, and the preservation of certain elements of accessory liability in the Polish concepts of incitement and assistance. In this respect, he was clearly opposed to the position of the concept’s originator, Makarewicz. Regarding liability for causative forms of complicity, he drew attention to the consequences of the erroneous omission of a provision in the general part of the Criminal Code that establishes the basis for liability for joint perpetration. He consistently argued that, for this reason, under the provisions of the 1932 Criminal Code, it was impossible to apply the extra-statutory concept of joint perpetration to attribute liability in cases currently referred to as parallel co-perpetration. In both areas, Glaser’s views remain relevant today, constituting an important addition to analyses of criminal law.

This research aims to analyze the legal regulations and implementation problems of copyright royalty governance in Indonesia and to formulate legal reforms to achieve certainty and justice for creators. This study employs both a statutory approach and a conceptual approach within a normative juridical research methodology. Law Number 28 of 2014 concerning Copyright and Government Regulation Number 56 of 2021 concerning the Management of Song and/or Music Copyright Royalties serve as the primary legal materials used in this study, while secondary legal materials include scholarly literature, academic journals, and expert doctrines. The research findings indicate that, normatively, Indonesia's copyright royalty regulation system has provided a solid legal foundation for creators' economic rights through a royalty management mechanism administered by the Lembaga Manajemen Kolektif Nasional (LMKN) and the Lembaga Manajemen Kolektif (LMK). However, a number of issues persist in practice, including the potential for overlapping jurisdiction among royalty management organizations, low levels of compliance among music users in paying royalties, and insufficient transparency in the collection and distribution of royalties. These circumstances reveal a discrepancy between the relevant legal standards and their application in practice. Legal reform is therefore needed through strengthened regulations, increased transparency in royalty management, the development of an integrated information technology system, and the reinforcement of oversight and law enforcement mechanisms. These reforms are expected to produce a more effective royalty governance system, provide legal certainty, and improve the welfare of creators, thereby supporting the development of the creative industry in Indonesia.

The istishna contract is widely used in the development of Sharia housing in Indonesia. However, its implementation may create Sharia compliance problems when it is not supported by an adequate understanding of fiqh muamalah principles and positive legal regulations. This article aims to formulate a conceptual sharia compliance model for istishna contracts as an effort to strengthen consumer protection in sharia housing development. This study uses normative legal research with conceptual and statutory approaches. The legal materials include DSN-MUI fatwas, relevant laws and regulations, and literature on Islamic economic law. The results show that sharia compliance in istishna contracts must be established through fulfillment of the pillars and requirements of the contract, clarity of object specifications, transparency of price and delivery time, proportional risk allocation, and systematic sharia supervision. The proposed model is arranged into four stages, namely pre-contract, contract formation, implementation, and post-handover. The model is expected to serve as a normative basis for developing fair, transparent, and sharia-compliant istishna practices in sharia housing.

This study aims to analyze the differences, roles, and contributions of central and regional taxes within the Indonesian taxation system. Taxes serve as the primary source of state revenue and play a crucial role in financing development and improving public welfare. Along with the implementation of fiscal decentralization, local governments are granted authority to manage regional taxes in order to enhance fiscal independence. This research employs a qualitative method with a descriptive approach, utilizing library research from various sources such as books, academic journals, and legal regulations. The results indicate that central taxes still dominate state revenue compared to regional taxes, reflecting disparities in regional fiscal capacity. Central taxes function to finance national programs and maintain economic stability, while regional taxes support local development and public services. To optimize tax revenue, strategies such as tax intensification, digitalization of the tax system, regulatory simplification, and improvement of taxpayer compliance are necessary. Therefore, an effective, transparent, and fair taxation system is expected to promote economic growth and equitable development in a sustainable manner.

Adolescents face significant barriers in accessing reproductive health services due to fears of privacy breaches and social stigma. In primary healthcare facilities, healthcare professionals are often trapped in a dilemma between the obligation to maintain medical confidentiality based on professional ethics and national regulatory demands requiring parental involvement for underage patients. This study aims to analyze the practice of protecting adolescent patient data privacy at Mardi Saras Primary Clinic and identify the gap between practical implementation and the norms of medical ethics and applicable legal regulations. This study employs a socio-legal research method with a qualitative approach. Data were collected through in-depth interviews with doctors and nurses, observation of service procedures, and study of the clinic's Standard Operating Procedures. The results indicate that although Mardi Saras Primary Clinic has implemented basic confidentiality protocols such as closed consultation rooms, there are substantial weaknesses in informed consent management, which still heavily relies on parental presence for all adolescent cases. This practice is driven by healthcare professionals' fear of legal risks, thereby ignoring the principle of developing autonomy in adolescents. These findings indicate a disparity between rigid administrative compliance and the spirit of protecting adolescent health rights within national regulations. The implication of this study underscores the urgency of developing specific SOPs that are sensitive to adolescent rights, as well as the need for continuous training for healthcare professionals regarding the legal and ethical boundaries of maintaining confidentiality for underage patients without compromising legal safety aspects.

BackgroundThe influence of factors like attitudes, subjective norms, or perceived behavioral control on physicians’ intention to provide abortion care in Germany is not evaluated so far. We applied the Theory of Planned Behavior to analyzes the role of those factors, and compare providers and non-providers to identify possible barriers to abortion provision amongst physicians.MethodsA cross-sectional online survey was conducted between June and November 2024 among office-based gynecologists and abortion providers of all specialties, recruited via cluster sampling. The survey assessed a range of factors influencing the provision of abortion, including attitudes, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control, religiosity, fear of stigmatization, gender and knowledge. Multiple regression analysis tested the TPB model, abortion providers and non-providers were compared via t-tests.ResultsN = 213 participants completed the survey. Perceived behavioral control (β = 0.479, p < 0.001) explained the most variance in behavioral intention to provide abortions, followed by subjective norms (β = 0.326, p < 0.001) and attitudes (β = 0.136, p = 0.010). The group comparisons between abortion providers and non-providers revealed that abortion providers showed more positive attitudes towards abortions, stronger perceived subjective norms on providing abortions, higher perceived behavioral control of providing abortions, lower fear of stigmatization, lower religiosity and higher subjective knowledge on abortions and legal regulations than non-providers.ConclusionsIntentions to provide abortion care are influenced by attitudes, subjective norms, and especially perceived behavioral control, indicating a need for targeted interventions addressing those factors to improve intentions to provide abortion care.Supplementary InformationThe online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12978-026-02389-8.

Since October 2021, it has been possible in Leipzig to rent e-scooters and to participate actively in road traffic. Since then, a large number of traffic offenses has been recorded. This study examines alcohol and drug use among e-scooter riders in Leipzig and the surrounding area - particularly in relation to the new legal regulations. The accidents are analyzed in detail. A total of 411 traffic offenses recorded by the police between October 2021 and June 2024 were retrospectively analyzed. The study cohort consisted of 91.2% men. Of all rides under the influence of intoxicating substances, 65.9% took place in Leipzig. Differentiation of the traffic offenses revealed that 67.2% were administrative traffic offenses (§24a German Road Traffic Act, StVG), while 32.8% were criminal traffic offenses (§315c and §316 German Criminal Code, StGB). Cannabis use was predominantly detected in administrative offenses, whereas alcohol consumption played the major role in criminal traffic offenses. Among cannabis users, the majority were non-chronic consumers (79.2%). The main cause of accidents was self-inflicted loss of balance (59.5%; n = 22). Accident consequences were primarily minor injuries (67.6%; n = 25), with injuries occurring mainly to the face (n = 5), head (n = 6), and upper extremities (n = 5). These data show that alcohol and cannabis consumption dominate the rising traffic offenses in Leipzig and its surrounding area. The results contain temporal and regional differences which point to distinct target groups and underscore the necessity of providing education regarding the legal framework and the impact of substances on driving and fall competences. In light of these findings, together with data from other regions, a re-evaluation of the statutory THC limit should be considered, as the current threshold primarily results in reduced penalties for occasional users, who may be at higher risk due to a lack of tolerance development. The observed injury patterns suggest an introduction of a helmet requirement.

New technological advances, including generative artificial intelligence, have provided new methods of victimizing women and girls. The discussion on the impact of digital violence against women and girls throughout the United Nations 70th Session of the Commission on the Status of Women represented a global and unified effort to influence and shape global policy discourse for digital violence against women and girls. This perspective paper examined the digital violence against women and girls in a global context and reviewed existing international and the U.S. federal legal frameworks. Critical gaps were identified, and recommendations were presented. Digital violence against women and girls is a justice and public health crisis. Concerted legal and legislative regulations at an international, national, regional, and local level are essential to protect women and girls. Nurses and health care professionals are stakeholders in the protection of women and girls from digital violence.

As generative artificial intelligence, machine learning, and predictive analytics tools continue to enter government governance scenarios, public decision-making is shifting from “digital assistance” to “algorithmic embedding.” While artificial intelligence can enhance the efficiency of policy identification, resource allocation, and risk early warning, its use in public decision-making also brings about compound risks, such as data bias, model opacity, outsourcing of responsibility, algorithmic bias, and compromised procedural justice. Based on interdisciplinary research at the intersection of public administration and technology law, this paper employs a methodology combining normative analysis, literature review, and comparative institutional analysis to address three central questions: “How does AI reshape the risk structure of public decision-making?” “Why are existing ethical and legal regulations insufficient?” and “How can a regulatory framework be established that balances efficiency and rights?” The study argues that the core gap in current regulation lies not merely in the absence of “human oversight,” but in the lack of procedural intensity designs commensurate with decision-making risks. Based on this, the paper proposes a “tiered risk–procedural intensity matching” framework: according to the functional role and degree of rights impact of AI in public decision-making, differentiated measures such as registration and disclosure, algorithmic impact assessments, external audits, objection remedies, procurement transparency, and prohibition lists should be applied. This framework helps translate ethical principles into enforceable institutional arrangements.

The article carries out a comprehensive criminological study of persons who commit criminal offenses in the sphere of activity of non-banking financial institutions. It is substantiated that the social danger of such offenses is largely determined by the set of socio-demographic, status-role, moral-psychological and criminal-legal characteristics of the offender’s personality, which are formed under the influence of the social environment and are implemented in illegal behavior. It is determined that the personality of the criminal is a complex interdisciplinary phenomenon that combines social, psychological and legal features and is considered as a carrier of anti-social orientation. It has been established that persons who commit criminal offenses in the field of non-banking financial institutions are characterized by a high level of education, the presence of special knowledge in the field of finance and lending, professional competence, as well as developed communication skills, the ability to persuade and manipulate. It has been proven that their behavior is mainly rational, self- motivated in nature and is implemented through the use of official position, trust relationships and gaps in legal regulation. It is substantiated that criminal offenses in this area are mostly organized in nature, committed in groups with a clear division of roles and functions, which makes their detection and investigation difficult. The author’s approach to the classification of offenders is proposed, which involves their division into internal, external, associated and intermediary entities depending on the degree of involvement in financial and credit activities. It is emphasized that the key role in the mechanism of criminal activity is played by persons who occupy managerial and supervisory positions in non-bank financial institutions or related structures, since it is they who have access to financial resources, management tools and the ability to influence decision-making. The conclusion is made about the need to improve criminological prevention measures taking into account the typological characteristics of the offender, as well as strengthening internal control, compliance and regulatory supervision in the financial sector.

The article examines foreign experience of legal regulation of termination of employment relations due to the absence of an employee at work. It is noted that in the conditions of modern socio-economic changes, transformation of forms of labor organization and development of the labor market, the issues of termination of an employment contract are becoming particularly relevant. The absence of an employee at work can manifest itself in the form of absenteeism, long absence without good reason or other circumstances that prevent the performance of labor duties, and in many legal systems is considered as a violation of labor discipline, which can be a basis for dismissal. The study analyzed the legislation and law enforcement practice of such states as Germany, Poland, France, Great Britain, the USA and Canada. It was found that in most developed countries there are clear legal mechanisms for regulating the termination of employment relations, which provide for the need to document violations of labor discipline, clarify the reasons for the employee’s absence from work, apply disciplinary measures in accordance with the principle of proportionality and comply with certain dismissal procedures. Particular attention is paid to the experience of Germany, where a written warning (Abmahnung) is usually applied before dismissing an employee, which confirms the use of dismissal as a last resort. An analysis of the legislation of other countries also indicates the significant role of procedural guarantees, in particular, conducting a disciplinary investigation, providing the employee with the opportunity to explain the reasons for his behavior and ensuring judicial control over the legality of dismissal. It was concluded that foreign experience in the legal regulation of the termination of employment relations is characterized by the application of the principle of proportionality of disciplinary sanctions, the presence of clear procedures for documenting violations of labor discipline and ensuring procedural guarantees for the protection of employees’ labor rights. Using the positive experience of foreign countries can contribute to the improvement of the national labor legislation of Ukraine, in particular by detailing the procedure for recording the absence of an employee at work, introducing the principle of gradual disciplinary measures and strengthening judicial control over the legality of dismissal.

This article is devoted to a comprehensive study of international legal standards governing monetary circulation in the context of financial market globalization, the digitalization of the economy, and the transformation of traditional financial institutions. The relevance of the topic stems from the growing role of international financial organizations in shaping universal rules for the functioning of monetary and credit systems, as well as the need to harmonize national legislation with universally recognized international standards. The essence of monetary circulation as an object of international legal regulation is revealed, and the role of international financial organizations in establishing standards for the stability of monetary and credit systems is analyzed. Particular attention is paid to the activities of international institutions that establish rules for currency regulation, combating financial crimes, ensuring the stability of the banking system, and developing payment systems. The role of key international institutions – the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the Bank for International Settlements (BIS), the Financial Action Task Force (FATF), and the Committee on Payments and Market Infrastructures (CPMI) – in shaping the global regulatory architecture for monetary and payment relations. This article describes key international standards, including principles of monetary policy, financial monitoring requirements, banking regulation standards, and recommendations regarding the digitalization of financial services. It examines the importance of harmonizing national legislation with international standards to ensure financial stability and the effective functioning of the monetary system. It is established that international legal standards are primarily formed in the form of “soft law,” yet they have a significant impact on national legal systems. It is argued that the effective functioning of the monetary system is impossible without taking into account international legal standards, which ensure the stability of the financial system, the transparency of financial flows, and trust in financial institutions. It is concluded that the implementation of such standards is a necessary condition for the integration of states into the global financial system and for enhancing the effectiveness of monetary policy.

BackgroundPeople without medical insurance often lack access to medical care, increasing their risk of chronic diseases and reducing life expectancy. This disparity likely extends to end-of-life care, when patients are especially vulnerable. The main research question was whether outpatient and inpatient palliative care facilities regularly treat uninsured patients. Based on the results, the study initiated an ethical reflection on the circumstances of uninsured palliative patients in Germany.MethodsThe study ran for 15 months from 2024 to 2025 1494 inpatient hospices, outpatient hospice services and specialized outpatient palliative care (SOPC) in Germany were invited to participate in an online questionnaire. The questionnaire contained questions about the care of uninsured patients with palliative care needs. A univariate descriptive analysis was used. Based on the results, ethical reflections on overlapping vulnerability were conducted, focusing especially on how living without medical insurance and its related circumstances interact from an intersectional perspective.ResultsPeople without medical insurance, usually aged 40–65 years, received care at 41 (45.6%) inpatient hospices, 63 (29.3%) outpatient hospice services, and 29 (48.3%) SOPCs. Social workers usually made the requests. Funding gaps were reported by 10 (24.3%) inpatient hospices, 18 (8.4%) outpatient hospice services, and 55 (60.3%) SOPCs. 49 (54.4%) of inpatient hospices, 133 (61.9%) of outpatient hospice services, and 37 (61.7%) of SOPCs lacked knowledge about care options for uninsured patients ,. Fewer uninsured patients were cared for than had requested care, although there was a high level of willingness to provide palliative care to people without medical insurance.ConclusionsThe findings suggest that palliative care facilities do not regularly treat uninsured patients in Germany. Access to established palliative care institutions seems more difficult for the uninsured. These results indicate major inequalities in the provision of health care in Germany, especially in phases when patients are highly dependent on caregivers and therefore in need of protection. To address these issues, networking between medical services for the uninsured and palliative care services should be further strengthened. Precise legal regulations are ethically necessary alongside measures to ensure low-threshold access to palliative care and targeted training for medical professionals.Supplementary InformationThe online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12916-026-04992-9.

To date, there is no established practice or unified approach to the issues of liability for errors made on the basis of machine learning algorithms. Typologically, the subject may be a physician or other medical workers, the head of a structural unit or medical institution, the developer of an artificial intelligence (AI) system, a robot or their components, as well as an information system operator and employees of a technical department. From the standpoint of risk taxonomy, the following can be distinguished: harm to life and health caused as a result of a diagnostic or prognostic error, a defect in the implementation or updating of a model, insufficient training or lack of qualifications when working with AI systems, compromise of an information system, violation of legally protected secrets, discrimination and unequal access to medical care, and others. This paper provides an overview of select AI solutions in the healthcare sector, relevant legal regulation, judicial and law enforcement practice in Russia and foreign countries, as well as the possible legal qualification of certain criminogenic situations.