This article examines the prevalence and dynamics of forced and arranged marriages in the Kurdistan Region of Iraq, tracing how women's autonomy is constrained and how consent is negotiated under pressure within patriarchal social structures. The study asks how consent is negotiated, justified, and experienced in situations where refusal would carry social, economic, or familial consequences. Employing a thematic analysis of 55 in-depth interviews, the study explores how these practices are sustained through intersecting pressures, honour, kinship obligations, economic precarity, and familial control. This is the first multi-site, gender-focused study to examine forced and arranged marriages across Kurdish and Arab communities. The research examines the continuum between “arranged” and “forced” marriage and the social logics that position women within these systems. Situated within feminist and sociological analyses of gendered constraint, the findings demonstrate how marriage functions as a social and economic strategy, how families mobilise marriage to safeguard honour or consolidate status, and why legal prohibitions remain largely disconnected from lived realities. The article contributes new empirical insight into how coercion is rationalised within kinship systems and how women navigate constrained forms of agency in contexts where alternatives are limited. While forced marriage is legally prohibited in the region, the study argues that legal reforms alone are insufficient without corresponding shifts in social norms, institutional practices, and community-level interventions that address the structural conditions enabling these marriages.

This article examines the collapse of multilateral migration governance in Niger following the 2023 military coup and the broader implications for European Union (EU) external migration policy in the Sahel. Once a linchpin in EU strategies to externalize border control, Niger was the focus of extensive development aid, legal reforms, and security cooperation aimed at deterring irregular migration to Europe. These efforts, however, largely failed to achieve their objectives and generated local resistance, culminating in the annulment of key legislation and the breakdown of EU–Niger cooperation. Drawing on interviews with international officials, as well as policy documents, the article traces the evolution of EU interventions in Niger – from the deployment of the EU Capacity Building Mission to the use of the Emergency Trust Fund for Africa as a tool for ‘containment development’. It argues that in place of structured, multilateral frameworks, a fragmented system of ad hoc governance is emerging, led by international organizations and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) operating outside traditional state partnerships. This shift reflects a broader global trend toward informal, network-based governance and raises urgent questions about the accountability, sustainability, and legitimacy of EU migration policy in a multipolar world.

This article critically examines the fragmented legal landscape governing sustainability in the UK construction sector and proposes an integrated enforcement framework aligned with the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Drawing on a life-cycle-based conceptual model, the article identifies regulatory and contractual intervention points from project inception through demolition. The analysis considers private and public law instruments—including contract drafting, planning conditions, building regulations, and public procurement law—and identifies key weaknesses in the enforceability of sustainability obligations. Comparative insights from Sweden, the Netherlands, and Australia illustrate how other jurisdictions have codified life-cycle responsibilities through procurement reform and statutory planning mandates. The article also incorporates recent UK case law developments to show growing judicial willingness to uphold sustainability-linked obligations. Equity and environmental justice principles are then introduced to frame how legal reforms can avoid reinforcing structural inequalities. The article concludes with a series of targeted legal reforms to strengthen enforceability across instruments, grounded in current regulatory trends and judicial logic. These findings are relevant to policymakers, legal practitioners, and industry professionals seeking to embed sustainability as a legally binding, project-wide obligation.

Drug policy remains a politically and socially contested domain, with third-sector voices often marginalised despite their central role in advocacy and service delivery. The 2024 New South Wales (NSW) Drug Summit provided a rare, government-convened deliberative forum for third-sector organisations to contribute to state drug policy debate. This study examined how third-sector organisations framed drug policy issues and proposed solutions in advocacy documents produced in the lead-up to the summit and assessed the extent to which these frames were reflected in the summit's official outcome document, the Report on the 2024 NSW Drug Summit (the report). We conducted a qualitative document analysis of 33 publicly available third-sector advocacy documents, alongside the report. A deductive framing analysis was applied using Entman's four-frame model (problem definition, causal attribution, moral evaluation, and treatment recommendations), supplemented by Benford and Snow's collective action frames (diagnostic, prognostic, and motivational), to enable systematic comparison across documents. Advocacy documents predominantly framed drug-related harm as rooted in structural injustice, highlighting criminalisation, discriminatory policing, systemic underinvestment, and stigma. They attributed responsibility to specific laws and institutions and called for decriminalisation, expanded harm reduction, improved treatment access, and stronger peer-led services. Although the report acknowledged strong support for decriminalisation, it did not include it as a recommendation. Instead, the report framed harm primarily as the result of service fragmentation and access barriers and prioritised less contentious service-level reforms. The majority of third-sector organisations advanced cohesive, rights-based, and harm-reduction-oriented frames, including strong support for legal reform. In contrast, the report framed drug policy reform primarily through service-level and harm-reduction recommendations, while more politically contentious proposals-particularly decriminalisation and prison-based harm reduction-were less visible or absent. Our findings illustrate how frame-tracking can help clarify patterns of alignment and divergence between stakeholder advocacy and agenda-setting outputs in invited participatory forums.

Customary rights of occupancy constitute a significant component of land tenure in Mainland Tanzania, particularly for rural and peri-urban populations. These rights are legally recognised under the Land Act and Village Land Act, and constitutionally protected as property rights under the Constitution of the United Republic of Tanzania. However, their utilisation within mortgage financing frameworks remains legally constrained. This paper undertakes a doctrinal constitutional and human rights analysis of the limitations imposed on customary rights of occupancy in the context of mortgage financing in Mainland Tanzania. The study examines the legal framework governing land tenure, secured transactions, and financial regulation, focusing on the interaction between customary tenure and formal credit systems. It analyses relevant constitutional provisions, statutory laws, judicial decisions, and international human rights standards relating to property rights, equality, and access to economic resources. The paper argues that while Tanzanian law formally permits the use of customary rights of occupancy as collateral, in practice, legal, institutional, and procedural barriers significantly limit their effectiveness in accessing mortgage finance. These limitations include requirements for formalisation and conversion, valuation challenges, insecurity of tenure, and financial institutions’ risk perceptions. From a human rights perspective, these constraints raise concerns regarding the realisation of the right to property, the right to equality and non-discrimination, and the right to economic participation. The paper further demonstrates that the existing legal framework disproportionately affects rural communities, women, and vulnerable groups who predominantly rely on customary land tenure. Drawing on comparative insights and international human rights principles, the paper proposes legal and institutional reforms aimed at enhancing the bankability of customary rights of occupancy while safeguarding tenure security. It concludes that a more inclusive and rights-based mortgage-financing framework is essential for advancing equitable access to credit and promoting socio-economic development in Tanzania

Abstract This study analyses the diversification of the South Korean legal field following institutional changes. South Korean reforms to legal education and legal practice between 2007 and 2011, specifically the 2007 Act on the Establishment and Management of Professional Law Schools and the 2011 Attorney-at-Law Act amendments, expanded the pool of new attorneys and increased the number of law firms. The government increased the supply of lawyers by reforming the legal education system, while concurrent regulations promoted gender diversity in the system. Restrictions on establishing law firms were loosened. Using data on founding partners who established law firms in South Korea from 2000 to 2016, this study examines the effects of these legal reforms on the gender diversity of founding law firm partners. The findings reveal that the proportion of women among founding partners increased following these reforms, suggesting that the institutional changes encouraged gender desegregation in the Korean legal field.

Wildlife crime has developed into a complex and organized form of crime that poses a significant threat to biodiversity conservation in Indonesia. This study aims to analyze the role of Civil Servant Investigators (PPNS) in strengthening law enforcement post-wildlife, particularly following the enactment of Constitution Number 32 of 2024, with a specific focus on the Aceh Natural Resources Conservation Center (BKSDA Aceh). This research adopts a qualitative socio-legal approach, integrating normative analysis with empirical data obtained through in-depth interviews with law enforcement actors and case data analysis from 2023 to 2025. The research findings indicate that wildlife crime in Aceh occurs through structured patterns, including illegal hunting at the upstream level, organized distribution networks, and adaptive modus operandi supported by digital technology. The effectiveness of law enforcement is still constrained by institutional capacity limitations, fragmented coordination, and procedural dependencies between agencies. This study identifies a regulatory paradox, where the legal reforms of 2024, which were intended to strengthen conservation law, have in fact limited the authority of PPNS operations, particularly in coercive actions such as arrests and detentions. These conditions impact the responsiveness of law enforcement and weaken the deterrent effect against organized wildlife crime. This research contributes to the study of environmental law enforcement by emphasizing the importance of harmony between regulatory frameworks, institutional capacity, and operational realities. Additionally, it provides policy implications for strengthening coordination between institutions, improving law enforcement authority, and optimizing resource allocation to enhance the effectiveness of wildlife crime control in Indonesia.

This study aims to analyze the protection of victims of sexual violence crimes from a victimology perspective within Indonesian criminal law. This research employs a normative legal method with a qualitative approach, utilizing statutory and conceptual approaches. Data were collected through library research based on legislation and recent scientific journals published between 2021 and 2026. The results indicate that, normatively, Indonesia has established a relatively strong legal framework, particularly with the enactment of Law Number 12 of 2022 concerning Sexual Violence Crimes. However, its implementation remains constrained by several challenges, including limited capacity of law enforcement officials, weak inter-institutional coordination, and structural and cultural factors such as patriarchal culture and victim blaming practices. Furthermore, victims are still at risk of experiencing revictimization during the criminal justice process. From a victimology perspective, this condition reflects that the Indonesian criminal justice system is still in a transitional phase toward victim-oriented justice. Therefore, strengthening the victimological approach through comprehensive legal reform, enhancing the professionalism of law enforcement officers, and transforming legal culture in society are essential to ensure effective and substantive justice for victims.

Efforts to combat corruption increasingly emphasize the dual importance of transparency and intergovernmental coordination. These two governance principles are closely intertwined. When effectively combined, they create а framework that not only strengthens democratic legitimacy but also prevents abuse of power. From а legal reform perspective, transparency is more thаn а procedurаl vаlue; it is а safeguard аgаinst corruption. Internаtionаl standards аnd obligаtions, pаrticulаrly those stemming from Europeаn Union аccession processes аnd globаl аnti-corruption frаmeworks, further reinforce the need for trаnspаrent аnd coordinаted governаnce. North Mаcedoniа offers а compelling cаse study. Аs а unitаry stаte undergoing decentrаlizаtion аnd grаduаl deconcentrаtion of centrаl power, its institutionаl аrchitecture relies heаvily on coordinаtion between ministries, regulаtory bodies, аnd locаl governments. The аctuаl Strаtegy for Trаnspаrency 2023–2026 reflects both domestic demаnd for stronger аccountаbility аnd compliаnce with international obligations. Yet, the effectiveness of these reforms depends not only on formаl commitments but аlso on how trаnspаrency аnd coordinаtion аre prаcticed within а complex political environment. The positioning of institutions, the role of their leаders, аnd the broаder politicаl dynаmics shаpe whether аnti-corruption objectives аre аchieved in prаctice. This pаper exаmines how transparency reforms in North Macedonia intersect with intergovernmental coordinаtion аnd legаl commitments, highlighting the challenges аnd opportunities of аligning domestic governаnce structures with international аnti-corruption standards.

ABSTRACT The 2018 merger of FATA, a colonial remnant in northwest Pakistan, with Khyber Pakhtunkhwa was celebrated as a step toward ending the region’s legal and political marginalization. This article critically examines whether post-merger legal reforms have substantively altered the state’s mode of governance in Pakistan’s Pashtun borderlands. Drawing on Fairclough’s Critical Discourse Analysis, theoretically informed by Foucault’s concept of governmentality and Agamben’s theorization of the state of exception, we examine two post-merger legal developments: the Actions (in Aid of Civil Power) Regulation 2019 and the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Mines and Minerals Bill (2025). Our analysis shows how these legal texts institutionalize a state of exception that racializes Pashtun bodies as potentially criminal and dispossesses them of land through extractive policies. In light of successive waves of Ulasi Pasoon (people’s uprisings) (2024–2025), this article argues that the state extends its internal colonial project in Pashtun Land through the operationalization of necro-legal technologies, to create bare life conditions and transform the region into a resource colony.

Secure land tenure is a critical asset for agency, livelihoods, and resilience, yet a persistent gender gap in land ownership undermines development and equality in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Despite a proliferation of gender-sensitive land policies, the disparity between legislative intent and on-the-ground reality remains a formidable challenge. This study employs a systematic review methodology, following a PRISMA-inspired protocol. From an initial pool of 2,446 studies identified across major academic databases, 56 met the inclusion criteria based on relevance, methodological rigour, and thematic focus, forming the basis for a thematic synthesis. The review identifies a triad of influencing factors: (1) Policy Mechanisms: including national land reforms, constitutional guarantees, and international frameworks; (2) Implementation Bottlenecks: such as weak enforcement, limited legal awareness, and lack of political will; and (3) Structural Barriers: primarily patriarchal customary tenure systems, discriminatory inheritance norms, and deeply embedded socio-cultural practices that privilege male lineage. The analysis reveals a fundamental tension of legal pluralism, where statutory laws coexist and often conflict with customary systems. The principal impediment is not a lack of policy but a governance disjuncture, a failure to align formal institutions with informal, socially entrenched norms that govern resource allocation at the community level. This review synthesises and advances theoretical frameworks at the intersection of political economy and property rights, demonstrating how patriarchal bargaining and institutional bricolage shape women’s land access within plural legal environments. It consolidates a fragmented evidence base to provide a comprehensive, region-wide analysis of the multi-scalar obstacles (from household to state) to women’s land tenure security, offering a coherent evidence map for researchers and practitioners. Transforming women's land rights in SSA requires moving beyond technical legal reforms to address the socio-institutional roots of exclusion. Key recommendations include: (1) implementing gender-responsive land governance that integrates customary and statutory systems; (2) investing in grassroots legal empowerment and awareness campaigns; (3) strengthening accountability mechanisms for policy enforcement; and (4) promoting systemic research on gendered outcomes of land tenure interventions.

Background: Hospital-related patient safety incidents and medical negligence disputes have increased pressure on Indonesia's health governance system, revealing a significant legal gap. Article 193 of Law No. 17 of 2023 limits hospital liability to vicarious liability for health personnel, yet differing interpretations raise questions about whether hospitals also bear central responsibility for duty of care and facility management. Objective: It aims to analyze hospital legal liability for unlawful acts in health service provision, focusing on three aspects: the scope of hospital liability, the application of compensation, and the legal basis for unlawful acts. Methods: It employs a descriptive-analytical method with a normative-juridical approach, relying on primary, secondary, and tertiary legal materials, complemented by interviews. Data were analyzed qualitatively without statistical methods. Results: The findings reveal that hospital liability extends beyond vicarious liability to include centralized institutional responsibility for duty of care and facilities. Compensation for unlawful acts is applied analogically from Articles 1243–1248 of the Civil Code, covering costs, losses, and interest, including both material and immaterial damages, provided there is no contributory negligence by the patient. Furthermore, liability for unlawful acts under Articles 1365–1367 of the Civil Code should be directed not at the hospital as an entity, but at the controlling legal body, such as a company (PT) or government institution. Conclusion: Indonesian hospital liability law requires harmonization. Article 193 should be interpreted broadly to include both forms of responsibility, and legal reforms are needed to clarify liability and improve mechanisms for patient compensation.

This article examines the performative function of criminal legislation in contemporary democratic politics. Drawing on cultural sociology and performance theory, it analyses how political actors mobilize the symbolic power of penal law to shape cultural meanings, generate audience identification, and accumulate political capital. The analysis focuses on two highly contested legal reforms in Spain concerning sexual offences: the progressive coalition's “Only Yes Means Yes” reform (Law 10/2022) and the counter-reform enacted shortly afterwards by a different parliamentary majority (Law 4/2023). Through this case study, the article identifies several recurrent strategies of penal performance, including the mobilization of moral narratives, the appropriation of the symbolic authority of social movements, the activation of emotional repertoires, and the strategic positioning of political actors within the electoral field. At the same time, it highlights the contingencies and risks that such performances encounter in complex mass democracies. The article contributes to debates on symbolic criminal law by showing how penal legislation can function as a key instrument of cultural power and political struggle.

Purpose: The paper examines the integration of a pharmacy-based primary health care (PHC) model as a practical strategy for expanding healthcare access in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), with a particular focus on Kenya. It assesses how pharmacies already widely utilized as first points of care can be systematically incorporated into formal PHC systems to improve access, efficiency, and health outcomes. Methodology: The study adopts a secondary data research design, drawing on global databases (WHO, World Bank, UN), national health data from Kenya, peer-reviewed literature, and policy documents. A mixed-methods approach combining quantitative trend analysis and qualitative policy analysis is used, alongside comparative analysis of LMICs and high-income countries with established pharmacy-based PHC models such as the United Kingdom, Canada, and Australia. Findings: Findings indicate that community pharmacies play a significant yet underutilized role in healthcare delivery in LMICs, accounting for a substantial proportion of first-contact care (40–60%), particularly for minor ailments, chronic medication refills, and preventive services. Comparative evidence demonstrates that countries with integrated pharmacy-based PHC models achieve improved access, reduced facility congestion, shorter waiting times, and enhanced system efficiency through structured reimbursement, defined scopes of practice, and strong governance frameworks. In Kenya, the presence of approximately 8,000 community pharmacies presents a scalable and cost-effective opportunity to expand PHC coverage and support Universal Health Coverage (UHC) goals. Unique Contribution to Theory, Practice and Policy: The study contributes to theory by advancing a health systems strengthening perspective that positions community pharmacies as strategic primary care actors within integrated service delivery networks. Practically, it provides an implementation-oriented framework outlining service packages, workforce competencies, referral pathways, and digital integration mechanisms necessary for operationalizing pharmacy-based PHC. From a policy perspective, it offers evidence-based recommendations for legal and regulatory reform, financing through health insurance schemes, public-private partnerships, and the establishment of quality assurance and governance structures. The study further recommends that formal integration of community pharmacies into PHC systems represents a viable, scalable, and high-impact intervention for improving equitable access to healthcare in Kenya and similar LMIC contexts.

ABSTRACT This study examines how disability-related language in Saudi Arabia shapes the everyday experiences of persons with disabilities and sustains linguistic ableism despite recent policy reforms. While initiatives such as the Disability Code and Vision 2030 emphasise inclusion, limited empirical work has explored how everyday speech, cultural values, and institutional discourse reproduce stigma. Drawing on qualitative data from 38 participants – 25 adults with diverse disabilities and 13 caregivers – using semi-structured interviews, discourse analysis, and participant observation, the study identifies five thematic domains. Everyday language emerged as a primary site of stigma, with terms such as mucāq, majnoon, and maskeen described as identity-reducing. Religious and cultural framings intertwined notions of divine testing with norms of shame and concealment. Participants also highlighted gaps between policy and practice, alongside pronounced gendered constraints and reductive media portrayals. The study concludes that advancing inclusion requires legal reforms accompanied by deeper cultural, gender-sensitive, and media-level transformation.

Professional competencies in visual healthcare in Spain and the European Union: Ophthalmologists, optometrists, and the risks associated with "scope-of-practice encroachment".

This study examines patriarchal cultural traditions in traditional Igbo society, particularly in Ihiala, and their impact on gender relations. Practices such as women’s exclusion from land ownership and inheritance, widowhood rites, wife inheritance, male child preference, kola-nut rituals, adultery sanctions, and female circumcision are analyzed within their historical and socio-cultural contexts to understand their origins, purposes, and effects. Using qualitative and historical methods, the study draws on oral interviews and scholarly sources. Findings show that although these practices originally aimed to preserve lineage continuity, social order, and spiritual harmony, they have significantly contributed to the marginalization of women. Women are systematically denied economic rights, face restrictive widowhood practices, and are subjected to norms that reinforce male dominance, resulting in economic dependency and limited agency in both family and society. The study also finds that these traditions are gradually evolving due to modernization, education, legal reforms, and human rights advocacy. However, patriarchal elements remain deeply embedded in contemporary practices. Therefore, while Igbo patriarchal culture holds historical significance, it requires critical reassessment in light of modern principles of gender equality and human rights. Balancing cultural preservation with social justice is essential to promote inclusiveness and equitable development.

Purpose This paper aims to examine how multinational enterprises minimise tax liabilities in emerging economies through lawful but engineered cross border structures. Using Rawlsian distributive justice, it assesses whether international tax rules and court responses protect the least advantaged by preventing tax base erosion that reduces funding for essential public services. It also examines how professional intermediaries enable complexity and shape the legitimacy of the international tax order. Design/methodology/approach Doctrinal analysis of judgments from India, Nigeria, Ghana and South Africa is combined with socio legal critique. The cases are mapped to four Rawls grounded assumptions on fairness, fragmentation, transparency and accountability. Findings The cases show repeatable avoidance mechanisms. In India, offshore restructuring treated a value shifting transfer as exempt. In Nigeria, layered group structures and joint venture operations complicated tax enforcement while harm litigation moved abroad. In Ghana, offshore routed payments reduced local scrutiny around public contracts. In South Africa, structured finance re-characterised interest as exempt dividends until challenged under anti avoidance rules. Across contexts, advisers and intermediaries supported opacity and individual accountability was limited. This increases pressure on low-income states with limited institutional capacity. Judicial reasoning shaped outcomes because purposive interpretation protected the tax base, whereas formalism accepted legal form and allowed base erosion that fails a Rawlsian fairness test. Research limitations/implications The focus on four jurisdictions limits generalisation but provides deep insight into ethical and legal asymmetries in global taxation. Practical implications Policymakers should adopt substance based anti-avoidance rules and enforce adviser duties, with promoter disclosure, sanctions and mutual assistance. Originality/value The study links Rawlsian justice to comparative case law and proposes UN reforms that target professional enablers of tax avoidance.

Artificial Intelligence (AI) is playing an increasingly prominent role in the analysis, reinterpretation, and even rewriting of historical narratives. Through powerful technologies such as deepfakes, generative models, and machine learning algorithms, AI can manipulate historical data and imagery in ways that challenge the integrity and authenticity of the historical record. These technological advances raise significant legal and ethical questions, particularly regarding the ownership and authenticity of AI-generated content, the potential spread of misinformation, and the risks posed by revisionist histories driven by algorithmic manipulation. As AI’s capacity to generate and disseminate historical reconstructions grows, concerns about intellectual property rights, defamation, historical falsification, and the distortion of cultural memory have become increasingly urgent. This paper critically investigates the implications of AI's involvement in shaping historical discourse, with a focus on the intersection between technology, law, and historical integrity. It explores how existing legal frameworks—such as copyright law, defamation law, and regulations on misinformation—apply to AI-generated historical content and whether these laws are sufficient to address the novel challenges posed by AI-driven historical revisionism. Through an interdisciplinary analysis, the paper examines the legal status of AI-generated works, the attribution of authorship and liability, and the tension between free expression and the need to preserve factual historical narratives. In addition to evaluating current legal regimes, this study proposes a set of legal and policy reforms aimed at ensuring transparency, accountability, and ethical standards in the use of AI for historical purposes. It advocates for the development of international guidelines and regulatory mechanisms to safeguard against the misuse of AI in historical contexts, while still encouraging technological innovation and scholarly exploration. Ultimately, this paper offers a balanced approach to managing AI’s transformative potential in historical scholarship, ensuring that advancements in AI contribute to, rather than undermine, the accurate and responsible understanding of the past.

Achieving health equity requires attention not only to healthcare access and the social determinants of health, but also to the governance capacity of institutions that shape health-related policies and legal frameworks. This study explores inclusive legal education as a potential upstream intervention for building health governance capacity, focusing on how barriers in legal professional training may indirectly connect to the health equity agenda. Through a secondary qualitative analysis of publicly available narrative texts and official documents concerning 14 Chinese legal professionals with disabilities, this study identified three interconnected dimensions. First, these public narratives reveal that institutional environments reflecting tendencies that disability scholars characterize as ableism generate discernible barriers in legal education and professional entry pathways, barriers that could intersect with broader patterns of socioeconomic stratification recognized as social determinants of health outcomes. Second, while informal social capital serves compensatory functions when formal support systems remain underdeveloped, this reliance may inadvertently create filtering mechanisms that narrow the range of perspectives available for health policy formulation. Third, public narratives indicate that some individuals exhibit transformative agency, leveraging their legal professional identities to advocate for institutional improvement in ways that may be understood as a form of empowered social participation in health governance. These findings advance a conceptual argument: promoting inclusivity in legal education may constitute upstream capacity-building for health equity. By expanding professional diversity within legal systems, such reform may contribute to governance institutions’ capacity to develop more inclusive health policies and anti-discrimination frameworks. This research offers a conceptual framework and preliminary theoretical grounding for understanding how capacity building, social participation, and empowerment in legal education reform may conceptually connect to the broader health equity agenda.