The digital age has redefined ownership, particularly within the video game industry, where End User License Agreements (“EULAs”) and licensing models have eroded traditional consumer rights. This Comment examines how U.S. courts’ broad enforcement of clickwrap and shrinkwrap agreements, combined with evolving monetization models and unilateral contract modification practices, has shifted bargaining power decisively toward game publishers. Using Activision Blizzard’s 2024 EULA as a case study, the Comment illustrates how licensing terms can restrict access, limit legal recourse, and undermine reasonable consumer expectations despite substantial upfront purchases. The Comment then situates these practices within existing consumer protection frameworks and evaluates California Assembly Bill (“AB”) 2624 as a targeted response to deceptive digital ownership representations. While California's AB 2624 is a promising example, this Comment concludes that federal legislation is necessary to address deeper structural deficiencies in digital ownership law, including unilateral contract modifications, inconsistent judicial enforcement, and the lack of standardized disclosures for digital goods and services.

This study looks at the impact of British colonial laws on converting the role of the Taluqdars from being semi-autonomous chiefs to becoming legally based aristocrats following the 1857 revolt in India, as well as their implications for the subaltern peasant class. Specifically, it argues that the Oudh Estates Act of 1869 and the Taluqdar's Relief Act of 1870 form an integrated legislative framework. The first act, conferred absolute, heritable, and transferable proprietary rights where none had existed, enforced primogeniture to prevent estate fragmentation, and created exclusive government lists that alone determined who counted as a Taluqdar. The second act, immunized this newly created aristocracy from its own debts, suspending creditor suits, barring arrest and attachment, guaranteeing aristocratic maintenance from estate revenues, and permanently extinguishing claims not timely presented. Together, these acts did not merely recognize or regulate an existing aristocracy; they manufactured one and rendered it economically indestructible. This consolidation came at catastrophic cost to the agrarian base. The same statutes that fortified the Taluqdar erased the layered, interdependent rights of subaltern peasants such as bhumidhars, dakhilkars, and kashtkars of rural Awadh and reducing generations of customary holders to tenants-at-will without legal recourse. By reading the two acts together rather than separately, this study reveals that colonial power in Awadh operated not primarily through military force but through the deliberate legal engineering of both Taluqdari loyalty and peasant dependency. The agrarian order these statutes created endured for over eighty years, shaping rural power and poverty until zamindari abolition in independent India.

Since the discovery of the SARS-CoV-2 virus in late 2019, the world has faced the COVID-19 pandemic, which has had significant health, social, and economic impacts. Efforts to control the spread of this virus include mass vaccination programs. However, as with all medications and vaccines, COVID-19 vaccines have the potential to cause side effects in a small number of recipients. While serious side effects are extremely uncommon, they still need to be considered when it comes to safeguarding public health. Objective: Additional research is necessary to examine how to safeguard against side effects from COVID-19 vaccination in Indonesia. This includes investigating compensation mechanisms and legal protections for those affected, understanding the government's role in managing vaccination risks, and exploring the steps individuals can take if they do not receive legal recourse following vaccination This study employs normative legal research methods, focusing on the analysis of legal texts, legal documents, and related norms to understand and interpret applicable legal principles. In Indonesia, legal protection against side effects from COVID-19 vaccination involves two primary components: preventive and repressive. Preventive measures are outlined in Presidential Regulation No. 99 of 2020, which sets standards for vaccination practices and BPOM oversight to reduce risks. Repressive measures include administrative penalties for failing to comply with vaccination requirements, as defined in Presidential Regulation No. 14 of 2021. Additionally, Article 15B of this regulation provides for compensation in cases of disability or death resulting from vaccination. Ministerial Regulation No. 10 of 2021 further details the process for claiming compensation. The government plays a key role in managing vaccination risks, but if legal protection falls short, individuals can pursue compensation through civil suits, citizen lawsuits, or class actions. The legal protection system for post-vaccination side effects of COVID-19 in Indonesia includes comprehensive preventive and repressive measures. The effectiveness of this protection depends on consistent implementation and transparency in the compensation process. Although regulations and compensation mechanisms are well established, improvements in public education, supervision, and law enforcement are necessary to ensure optimal protection and justice for affected individuals.

Purpose: This study analyzes standard clauses in online loan agreements in Indonesia, which often cause injustice to consumers. The use of standardized clauses has become increasingly common in digital financial services, but these clauses are often one-sided, favoring the service providers over consumers. This issue can lead to significant legal and ethical concerns. Methodology/approach: This study uses a normative juridical research method with a literature study approach, reviewing relevant regulations, including Law Number 8 Year 1999 on Consumer Protection (UUPK), along with other applicable consumer protection laws in Indonesia. By analyzing the current legal framework and court decisions, the research aims to uncover the practical implications of these clauses. Results/findings: The results indicate that standard clauses such as exoneration clauses, opaque fines, and misuse of personal data often disadvantage consumers by limiting their rights and withholding key information. Conclusions: The use of standard clauses in online loan agreements in Indonesia continues to create problems due to unequal rights and obligations between providers and consumers. Although regulations exist, weak enforcement and low consumer awareness limit effective protection. Limitations: Although the GCPL (Government Consumer Protection Law) has regulated the prohibition of harmful clauses, implementation in the field is still weak due to a lack of supervision, low consumer literacy, and limited access to legal recourse. Contribution: This study highlights the need to strengthen regulations, improve consumer education, and enhance supervision of online loan providers to ensure fair, balanced, and transparent consumer protection.

The Fourth Industrial Revolution (IR 4.0), characterized by the integration of technology and human labor, is rapidly shaping the employment landscape in Bangladesh. A defining feature of this transformation is the expansion of the digital platform economy, which has accelerated in response to the COVID-19 pandemic and the increased need for remote and flexible work arrangements. Traditional employment structures are giving way to new forms of work, such as gig and part-time employment, offering workers greater flexibility and access to income-generating opportunities. However, these benefits are accompanied by significant challenges, particularly the ambiguous legal status of platform-based workers. Bangladesh's current labor laws do not adequately recognize or protect workers engaged in these non-traditional employment models, leaving them vulnerable and without legal recourse. This study investigates the responsiveness of Bangladesh’s labor legal framework to the demands of digitalization. Using a doctrinal research approach, it analyzes employment contracts, workplace conditions, and the broader implications of digital labor on workers’ rights. The findings indicate a pressing need for legislative reform. The study calls for a holistic and inclusive legal strategy that adapts to digital realities while ensuring decent work standards, social protection, and regulatory oversight for all forms of employment in the digital era.

The existence of male sexual victimization is a prevailing concern. Although it was already recognized, there is still a need to understand it. It is due to its underrepresentation, insufficiency of conducted research and the unfamiliarity of community towards it. This study aimed to establish an understanding regarding male sexual victimization through the perspective of police officers who have experienced handling such cases, the challenges they have encountered and the proposed program relevant to male sexual victimization. This study made use of the qualitative method. This study was conducted in the Province of Pangasinan, specifically 4th district. The main data-gathering tool is the interview guide, specifically a semi-structured interview. The findings revealed that the handled case of male sexual victimization, mostly those of male who have been sexually coerced by the perpetrator. The officers experienced case withdrawal, systematic gap in handling the case and rarity of case as challenged in dealing with male sexual victimization. Taking measures and proposing a program that focuses on acknowledgement of role limitation and capacity development of the organization. Recommendations are provided; hence, the PNP should establish a non-judgmental environment for male victim. The enhancement of capability of the Organization and their personnel which fosters a victim-centered approach. To policy makers, to ensure that male victims receive the same degree of assistance and legal recourse as their female counterparts. Lastly, this study focused on the experiential perspectives of police officers handling male sexual victimization cases, future research should examine the psychological consequences faced by male survivors.

ABSTRACT Left‐behind children—those who remain in rural areas under the care of grandparents while their parents migrate to urban centres for work—are disproportionately vulnerable to teacher‐perpetrated (child sexual abuse [CSA]) in rural school settings. This scoping review aims to examine how issues related to teacher‐perpetrated CSA are represented in existing literature and media discourse, as these portrayals can significantly shape public perceptions of CSA and influence policy responses that directly affect victims, survivors and perpetrators. Media reports on incidents of teacher‐perpetrated CSA against rural left‐behind children (hereafter ‘teacher‐perpetrated CSA’) were systematically collected. The search focused on Chinese‐language publications with accessible full texts; reports lacking detailed case descriptions were also included. A total of 19 cases reported between 2000 and 2023 were identified, and the characteristics of both perpetrators and victims were analysed. Media coverage revealed a disproportionately high number of assault cases involving left‐behind girls in rural schools. The absence of age‐appropriate sex education in China likely contributes to children's limited awareness of CSA and inadequate self‐protection knowledge. Furthermore, insufficiently developed sex‐crime legislation often leaves victims without effective legal recourse. Existing laws fail to ensure that compensation provided by perpetrators to underage victims reflects the severity of the offence, highlighting a critical gap in victim protection and justice enforcement. The greatest challenge at present is that rural left‐behind children continue to live in unprotected environments where they are at risk of sexual abuse. Under the Law of the People's Republic of China on the Protection of Minors, families, schools, society and the judicial system all share a legal and moral responsibility to safeguard left‐behind children from teacher‐perpetrated CSA. Effective prevention requires coordinated efforts across these sectors to build a comprehensive protective network that ensures children's safety and well‐being.

The problem of iatrogeny, recognised even by healers of the ancient world, remains pertinent to this day. As in earlier times, addressing issues of iatrogeny is not solely the responsibility of medical professionals: law enforcement bodies supervise the proper conduct of diagnostic, therapeutic, preventive, and rehabilitative procedures. The occurrence of iatrogeny in a patient provides legitimate grounds for seeking legal recourse. Nonetheless, the broadly construed definition of iatrogeny, as developed by WHO experts, is accompanied by an almost complete lack of clear, reliable criteria to differentiate between iatrogenic and non-iatrogenic outcomes of medical interventions. Our objective in preparing this publication was to bring to the attention of specialists the concept of medico-technogenic pathology – an idea proposed roughly twenty-five years ago but undervalued and unjustly neglected – offered here as a framework for more precise medico-legal analysis of the causes, mechanisms, and consequences of iatrogeny.

The dissertation investigates the evolution and repercussions of biometric technologies in current-day China, primarily on privacy and human rights. Using interviews and secondary literature review, it investigates the extent to which facial, fingerprint, and iris recognition have become more embedded in everyday life, government, and commerce. While these technologies enhance access, efficiency, and security in the daily lives of people, they also pose a risk to privacy and the use of data for unethical purposes. The dissertation compares Chinese privacy laws, especially the Personal Information Protection Law (PIPL), with laws in the EU, such as the GDPR, to show that governmental laws and regulations provide little actionable legal recourse. Finally, the dissertation makes the case for stronger laws and a need for greater public awareness of these increasing gaps in legal protection. The dissertation frames the rapid expansion of biometric technologies in its context and makes the case for a careful balance of the advancement of technologies and the rights of citizens to protect their privacy.

The institution of Waqf in India represents a centuries-old socio-religious system grounded in Islamic jurisprudence, intended for charitable and religious purposes. Over time, its legal governance has undergone a significant transformation from colonial impositions and administrative neglect to modern legislative attempts at reform. The latest legislative milestone, the Waqf (Amendment) Act, 2025, proposes a comprehensive overhaul of the existing Waqf governance framework to address chronic inefficiencies and promote transparency. Currently, Waqf properties in India suffer from mismanagement, encroachments, opaque decision-making, and lack of standard regulatory mechanisms. Though multiple amendments have attempted to streamline administration, the system remains vulnerable to misuse and political interference. The central task of this new reform is to redefine legal and operational mechanisms surrounding Waqf institutions by replacing outdated provisions with a more unified, transparent, and accountable governance system. This includes eliminating oral waqf declarations, institutionalizing digital record-keeping, and allowing wider representation within Waqf Boards. This study aims to critically examine the evolution of Waqf governance in India under Islamic and statutory frameworks, assess the impact of past reforms, and analyze the projected outcomes of the Waqf (Amendment) Act, 2025. The paper identifies persistent gaps in Waqf management such as limited legal recourse, political manipulation, inadequate property documentation, and exclusion of key stakeholders. The 2025, Amendment attempts to bridge these gaps by redefining waqf creation, delegating verification duties to District Collectors, integrating digital platforms for registration, and widening board representation to include Muslim women and non-Muslims. However, the reform also introduces potential constitutional tensions, especially concerning religious autonomy and administrative overreach. While the Amendment represents a significant legislative advance, its effectiveness hinges on rigorous enforcement, legal clarity, and alignment with constitutional safeguards. It underscores the delicate balance between enhancing public accountability and preserving the religious essence of Waqf.

This research analyzes a fundamental academic problem in Indonesia's bankruptcy law lies in the tension between the spirit of business rescue through Suspension of Debt Payment Obligations (PKPU) and the rigidity of the "single settlement principle" which denies debtors a second chance. This study analyzes the role of debt restructuring in safeguarding Limited Liability Companies (LLCs) from insolvency under Law No. 37 of 2004. Using a normative juridical method with a descriptive-analytical approach, this research utilizes primary data from court decisions and secondary data from legal literature. This study finds that although PKPU is designed to protect debtors, the application of the single settlement principle in the UUK-PKPU limits debtors’ ability to recover, often favoring creditors with stronger bargaining positions. This creates a legal vulnerability where good-faith debtors are immediately bankrupted upon the failure of a reconciliation plan without further legal recourse. Therefore, a renegotiation mechanism should be allowed to give debtors the opportunity to preserve their businesses.

The execution of mortgage rights on land is a crucial element in the property security legal system in Indonesia, which allows creditors to obtain debt repayment if the debtor defaults. However, the implementation of parate executie as a non-litigious mechanism based on Law Number 4 of 1996 concerning Mortgage Rights has sparked constitutional debates, particularly regarding the debtor's right to fair legal protection. This study analyzes the legal considerations of the Constitutional Court in Decision No. 10/PUU-XIX/2021, which rejected the constitutional review of the mortgage execution norms, and evaluates the legal execution procedures post-decision. Using the normative legal research method, this article examines the approach of contractual freedom, the principle of justice, and the protection of property rights in the context of creditor-debtor relationships. The study results show that the Court views parate executie as constitutionally valid, as long as it is carried out with the principles of transparency, proportionality, and the availability of legal recourse for the debtor. Therefore, legal protection within the mortgage system is not eliminated, but must be implemented through accountable and just practices. These findings provide an important normative basis for policymakers and economic actors in ensuring that the execution of guarantees runs effectively while still upholding the constitutional rights of the parties involved.

Abstract The rapid expansion of Indonesia’s gig economy has created flexible employment opportunities for freelancers. However, this unregulated sector exposes workers, especially those from vulnerable communities, to exploitation through unstable income, a lack of job security, and the absence of social benefits. Online platforms control freelancers’ visibility, while systemic discrimination limits fair opportunities. To address these challenges, policies prioritising fairness, human rights, and environmental due diligence (HREDD) in business practices are necessary. Indonesia has launched its National Strategy on Business and Human Rights and developed PRISMA, a self-assessment tool for companies to manage human rights risk. However, these initiatives are limited by operational ambiguities, insufficient funding, and unclear reporting mechanisms. Freelancers lack adequate legal protection and often work without enforceable contracts, leading to exploitation and limited legal recourse. Indonesia must shift from soft law to a robust legal framework that mandates HREDD, creates enforcement bodies, and issues sector-specific guidelines. This article recommends policies to enhance Indonesia’s HREDD framework’s alignment with international standards to improve the welfare of freelance workers.

The paper extends the study of urban displacement by exploring in depth the colonial settings of Palestinians in Silwan, East Jerusalem. The case highlights the legal geography of a multi-communal open city transformed into a space dominated by ethno-national settlement and a 'neo-apartheid' regime. The analysis traces how Jewish organizations reclaim pre-1948 Jewish properties, relying on manipulative interpretation of the Ottoman Land Code, and on Israeli legal, political and financial support. These moves lead to actual and potential displacement of hundreds of native Palestinian families. The detailed research shows how since 2002 Israeli settler organization ‘Ateret Cohanim’ initiated dozens of eviction lawsuits against Palestinian families in Batn al-Hawa, Silwan, reclaiming Jewish property built in the 1880s for poor Jewish Yemenite families, and seemingly instituted then as a pious (Waqf) property. Since many of the Palestinian residents are themselves displaced from other locations, the current colonial push places them under the condition of 'double displacement', with no legal recourse. Hence, the previous urban logic of space has given way to ethno-national and colonial regime, under which Palestinian urban citizenship is marked by its structural displaceability. This appears to be increasingly a common condition of colonized, subaltern and marginalized groups in cities of the global southeast. The analysis points to the need to further study and theorize the logic of displacement in cities outside the global North, with special emphasis on cities embroiled in ethnic and racial conflicts.

Across Australia, anti-discrimination, animal management, and public transport legislation preserves the public access rights of assistance dogs and their handlers. However, assistance dog handlers are still regularly refused access to public places, undermining their legal rights. This situation is exacerbated by the inconsistency between Australian jurisdictions. This article, therefore, examines the extent of this inconsistency, as well as other factors which undermine legal recourse for assistance dog handlers. For civil claims of discrimination, except in cases of extremely discriminatory conduct, damages are rarely awarded. For criminal penalties for assistance dog refusal, there are significant inconsistencies in penalties between different states. Some states and territories do not provide penalties for refusal more broadly or only penalise refusal in certain places, such as public transport, along with a lack of clarity on who can enforce penalties. This article concludes by offering recommendations for law reform using the Responsive Regulation framework.

This article analyses recent urban development in Rabat–Salé, Morocco, with a focus on displacement and women’s mobilisations against top-down planning. Since the early 2000s, state-led and internationally financed waterfront megaprojects, including tramway extensions, marinas, heritage restorations, and cultural complexes, have profoundly transformed working-class neighborhoods into tourist and elite residential enclaves. Despite official commitments to participation and fair compensation, many residents report demolitions, forced relocations, and limited access to information or legal recourse. Based on qualitative fieldwork conducted between 2022 and 2025, including 30 semi-structured interviews with women from the Ocean District, Saniat Gharbia, and Douar Laskar, as well as press analysis and participant observation, this study examines how women perceive and navigate these transformations. The analysis highlights the unequal impacts of gentrification across social groups, particularly along lines of gender and class. Drawing on feminist and postcolonial urban theories, the article explores how women contest exclusionary urban policies through sit-ins, media campaigns, and legal appeals. The findings show that while the Moroccan state promotes a globalised image of Rabat as a “City of Light,” local populations experience the erasure of historical memory, the loss of housing rights, and deepening spatial injustice. Women, in particular, emerge both as victims and agents of resistance, negotiating complex trade-offs between survival, visibility, and voice in the city. This research contributes to debates on urban inequality, spatial justice, and the role of gender in contested urban governance in the Global South.

BackgroundDisappointing medical care (DMC) encompasses cases of medical failures, malpractice, or errors. Literature suggests that individuals’ perceptions of harm resulting from medical procedures influence their intention to seek legal recourse and that apologies may mitigate the inclination for legal action.ObjectiveHere, we aim to scrutinize and potentially challenge this prevailing notion.MethodsWe conducted 4 studies using a dataset of social media posts detailing possible DMC incidents to which we linked a proxy for legal action, specifically, future posts related to legal action. Study 1 used a machine learning model to predict a proxy for an intent to file a lawsuit based on the content of 3815 posts. Two preregistered crowdsourcing studies (N=1115) assessed the impact of different apology types on intention-to-sue in 10 diverse medical scenarios with 4 apology conditions. Finally, study 4 aimed to test whether the predictors of legal intent identified in the crowdsourced studies and modeled as a function of case attributes can generalize to an actual subset of 165 Reddit (Reddit, Inc) posts.ResultsResults show that apologies are rarely mentioned in descriptions of DMCs and that the descriptions of DMCs predict the proxy of legal action (area under the curve [AUC]=0.78). Crowdsourcing studies reinforce these findings: people agree on which cases are worthy of legal action (interclass agreement: 0.96 in study 1 and 0.71 in study 2), and our results demonstrate that physical and emotional damage are independently the strongest predictors of intention to file a lawsuit, together accounting for 43%-48% of model variance. Apologies are not statistically significant predictors for the intent to file a lawsuit (P>.05), both separately and in interaction with physical and emotional damage. A model developed in the crowdsourcing study and based on the attributes of cases, when applied to large-scale data, reached an AUC of 0.67-0.70. However, these attributes did not capture the entire range of behaviors, as a model that was based on the words in the cases reached a significantly higher AUC of 0.79.ConclusionsText-based apologies appear to exert little influence on individuals’ intention to file a lawsuit in DMC cases, while physical and emotional damage are the primary motivators. This suggests that medical providers aiming to mitigate legal risks must explore alternative interventions beyond apologies.

Divorce often raises legal issues related to custody (child custody), especially when there is a breach of contract or violation of obligations by one of the parties, thereby creating new conflicts between former spouses and impacting the fulfillment of children's rights. This study aims to analyze the role of judges in handling post-divorce custody breaches, both in terms of prevention and enforcement, with a focus on practices in the Makassar Religious Court. This study uses a qualitative method with an empirical juridical approach that combines primary and secondary data. Data was collected through court observations, in-depth interviews with judges and related parties, analysis of court decisions, and a study of Islamic family law literature and national regulations. The results of the study show that the dominant forms of default include neglecting responsibility for the child, abandoning financial support, and attempting to prevent the other party from meeting the child. In terms of prevention, judges consider the principle of the best interests of the child, the age of the child, moral suitability, and the economic capacity of the parents before determining custody rights. Meanwhile, in enforcing the law against breaches that occur, judges provide legal recourse for aggrieved parties to file a lawsuit to revoke custody rights or revise custody decisions, thereby ensuring that the interests of the child are protected. This study shows that judges in the Religious Court do not merely perform formal judicial functions, but also play a protective role towards children by balancing Islamic legal norms, national regulations, and values of public interest. Strengthening the role of judges in addressing hadhanah breaches is important to provide legal certainty while ensuring the protection of children's rights after divorce.

BackgroundOlder adults in rural China bear a significant proportion of their healthcare expenses through out-of-pocket payments, resulting in a considerable financial burden on their families.ObjectiveThis study aimed to explore the key factors influencing adult children’s involvement in financing healthcare expenses for their elderly parents in rural China.MethodsData were collected by in-depth interviews using a semi-structured interview guide approved by all researchers. Inductive content analysis was employed to analyze data. A total of 15 participants were involved in the study.ResultsAdult children primarily assume responsibility for their elderly parents’ healthcare expenses in rural China, with occasional support from government subsidies. The principles guiding cost-sharing among adult children include filial piety, fairness, capability, and traditional gender roles. When adult children decline to take on the financial responsibilities, they may face pressure from the family members, the community, and local authorities, in some cases, elderly individuals may even resort to legal recourse. The state covers the healthcare expenses for older individuals without children through the “Five Guarantees” program and elder care institutions.ConclusionThis study highlights the financial dynamics within families in rural China, emphasizing the need for improved support systems to alleviate the burden on adult children and their elderly parents.

Abstract Military‐connected survivors of domestic violence, dating violence, sexual assault, and stalking (DVSAS) encounter unique challenges that exacerbate trauma experiences as they navigate various support systems, including civilian and military court systems. Jurisdictional mazes, the stigma surrounding trauma‐related conditions, and limitations and confusion on the enforcement of protective orders create significant barriers to accessing court systems and, ultimately, legal recourse. This article explores three priority areas for all criminal justice personnel to consider when working with military‐connected survivors: unique barriers for military‐connected survivors in court systems; PTSD stigma and the misuse of trauma in legal proceedings; and recommendations for education, policy reform, and survivor‐centered approaches. Additionally, this article presents key insights from NOVA's Veteran Treatment Court (VTC) report (National Organization for Victim Advocacy, 2025) and listening sessions, illustrating how a deeper understanding of military‐connected survivors' needs can enhance collaboration and improve services.