Legal Protection Research Articles

Background: Out-of-hospital cardiac arrests (OHCAs) are a major public health concern worldwide. Early cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) and automated external defibrillator (AED) use have significantly improved survival outcomes. Police officers are often the first to arrive at the OHCA scene of and play a critical role in early intervention. In 2024, the New Taipei City Police Department launched a Police AED Program in collaboration with the Fire Department. Despite this initiative, concerns remain regarding officer preparedness and willingness to perform CPR and use AEDs when dispatched. Methods: A cross-sectional survey was conducted from January to December 2024 among 4,867 frontline police officers who received standardized CPR and AED training (15-minute lecture and 45-minute hands-on session). Before training, a 33-item validated questionnaire assessing demographics, knowledge, confidence, legal awareness, and willingness to be dispatched was completed. After excluding incomplete responses, 3,744 valid questionnaires (76.9%) were analyzed. Cronbach's alpha was 0.81. Statistical analyses included chi-square, Fisher’s exact tests, and stepwise logistic regression, with subgroup analysis by age and years of service quartiles. This study was approved by the Institutional Review Board of Far Eastern Memorial Hospital (Approval No. 112212-E). Results: Among the 3,744 respondents, 2,785 (74.4%) were willing to be dispatched for CPR and AED use. Officers aged 28–32 showed higher willingness than those ≤27 (OR = 1.29, 95% CI: 1.01–1.63, p = 0.038), while those with 4–7 years of service were less willing than those with ≤4 years (OR = 0.67, 95% CI: 0.54–0.84, p < 0.001). No significant differences were found in older groups. Barriers included legal concerns and low confidence, with younger officers citing workload and preference to help known individuals. Key facilitators were training, legal protection, and incentives, with patterns varying by age and experience. Conclusion: Our study revealed that most frontline officers were willing to be dispatched to perform CPR and to use AEDs; however, barriers such as legal concerns and low self-confidence persist. Tailored interventions such as legal protection, skill-focused training, and age-appropriate incentives are recommended to enhance police participation in prehospital resuscitation efforts.

The practice of nikah sirri (unregistered marriage), which still occurs in several regions including Gampong Ajuen, Peukan Bada District, Aceh Besar Regency, raises serious issues, particularly regarding legal protection for women and children. This study aims to describe the practice of nikah sirri in Gampong Ajuen, analyze its impact on legal protection, and identify preventive, mitigative, and solution-oriented measures to minimize its negative consequences. The research applies a qualitative method with a sociological-empirical approach through field data collection. The findings show that nikah sirri creates various problems, such as wives losing their legal rights when abandoned, and children facing difficulties in obtaining birth certificates, legal recognition, and inheritance rights due to the absence of official marriage registration. This situation highlights the legal and social vulnerabilities experienced by women and children as a result of unregistered marriages. To address these issues, strategic measures are required, including public education on marriage registration through the Office of Religious Affairs (KUA), documentation of nikah sirri couples by village authorities, social assistance from DP3A and the Civil Registry Office, and marriage legalization through isbat nikah at the Sharia Court. The contribution of this research is expected to serve as a reference for formulating legal protection policies while strengthening the fulfillment of women’s and children’s rights at both local and national levels.

This research examines the framework of legal protection for children who are victims of psychological, emotional, and moral abuse in society. While physical and sexual abuse often receive the most public and legal attention, these non-physical forms of abuse have damaging and often invisible impacts that can fundamentally hinder a child’s development. This study analyzes existing legal instruments, both international and national, to identify the extent of available legal protection and the challenges in its enforcement. Theoretically, legal protection against non-physical abuse of children is rooted in the principles of child human rights, recognized in the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) and child protection laws in many countries. However, this research finds that legal implementation on the ground faces several significant challenges. These challenges include: 1) Lack of clear definitions: Psychological, emotional, and moral abuse are often difficult to define legally, making them challenging to prove in court. 2) Invisible nature: Non-physical forms of abuse leave no physical marks, which complicates evidence gathering and often leads to cases not being taken seriously. 3) Challenges in proving cases: The subjective nature of non-physical abuse makes proof complex, as it often relies on the testimony of a vulnerable child or indirect evidence. 4) Lack of awareness: There is a lack of awareness among the public, law enforcement officials, and even parents about the dangers of non-physical abuse to children. This study concludes that effective legal protection for children who are victims of non-physical abuse requires a multidisciplinary approach. It is crucial to enact legal reforms to provide clearer definitions and stronger sanctions, enhance training for law enforcement officials, and build robust psychological and social support systems for children. Additionally, public awareness campaigns are needed to change perceptions and encourage society to be more sensitive to these hidden forms of abuse, ensuring every child can grow up in a safe and supportive environment.

This study examines legal protection for vulnerable communities from the perspective of environmental justice and human rights in the era of climate change. Climate change exacerbates the vulnerability of marginalized groups, thus requiring a comprehensive legal approach. This study analyzes how existing legal and policy frameworks, both at the national and international levels, can effectively protect the rights of vulnerable communities affected by climate change. Environmental justice is the main focus of these frameworks, ensuring that environmental burdens are distributed fairly and do not disproportionately burden vulnerable groups. In addition, the study explores the role of corporate responsibility in climate change mitigation and adaptation, highlighting how business activities can impact the human rights of vulnerable communities. Stakeholder engagement, including consumers and investors, is considered essential in driving sustainable business practices. The study aims to identify gaps in current legal protections and propose policy recommendations to improve environmental justice and human rights for vulnerable communities in the era of climate change. It emphasizes the need for urgent action to protect groups most vulnerable to the impacts of climate change, considering ethical, social, and economic dimensions to achieve equitable and sustainable solutions.

Introduction Labor trafficking is a widespread yet underreported form of exploitation that disproportionately affects migrant populations. Migrants often face coercion, deception, and abuse across various labor sectors, and these circumstances are often exacerbated by structural inequalities and legal protections. There is a pressing need to synthesize existing knowledge and integrate stakeholders’ perspectives to inform future prevention and policies. Objective This study examines the scope, nature, and thematic trends in the literature on labor trafficking among migrant populations and augments these findings with qualitative insights from stakeholders working directly with trafficked migrant populations. Methods A scoping review was conducted following A scoping review was conducted according to the PRISMA guidelines. Nineteen peer-reviewed empirical studies published between 2014 and 2024 were analyzed across four databases. In parallel, 17 semi-structured interviews were conducted with service providers, researchers, and advocates experienced in labor trafficking. Structural violence theory guided the thematic analysis using Quirkos software. Results Seven major themes emerged: (1) informal recruitment networks, (2) hazardous and exploitative working conditions, (3) psychological and physical coercion, (4) economic and structural vulnerability, (5) gender-based vulnerabilities, (6) inadequate legal protections and enforcement gaps, and (7) mental health impacts. The qualitative data highlight the lived realities and systemic challenges trafficked migrants face and help validate and enrich the findings from the scoping review. Conclusion Labor trafficking among migrants is driven by economic, legal, and social vulnerabilities. Comprehensive, survivor-centered policies are urgently needed: reforms to recruitment practices, expanded mental health support, and stronger legal frameworks. The study findings call for cross-sectoral collaboration and the integration of migrant voices in program and policy design to combat trafficking for labor exploitation.

The development of digital technology has created serious challenges to the protection of citizens’ privacy rights. The rampant leakage and misuse of personal data by the public and private sectors shows the weakness of existing legal protection. Although Law Number 27 of 2022 concerning Personal Data Protection has been enacted, the effectiveness of its implementation is still in doubt, especially in ensuring justice for victims of privacy violations. This article analyzes the legal protection of privacy rights using the principle of justice approach, namely distributive, corrective, and procedural justice. The approach used is juridical-normative, complemented by case studies of personal data violations. The results of the study show that legal protection of privacy rights is still inadequate in substance. Therefore, the principle of justice needs to be used as the main foundation in the reconstruction of the legal system in the digital era.

Children as perpetrators of sexual violence crimes presents a complex dilemma in the Indonesian criminal justice system. On the one hand, there is a need to provide justice for victims and enforce the law, but on the other hand, the state is obliged to provide special protection for children involved in the law based on the Child Criminal Justice System Law (UU SPPA). Children in conflict with the law, whether due to coercion, ignorance, or environmental factors, require a different approach from adult perpetrators. This research is normative legal research using a statutory and conceptual approach. Data collection was carried out through a literature study of primary legal materials such as laws and regulations, secondary legal materials in the form of books and scientific journals, and tertiary legal materials. The results of the study show that the legal system in Indonesia has adopted the principle of the best interest of the child through diversion and restorative justice mechanisms. Legal protection is provided at every stage of the trial, from investigation to post-decision guidance, with a focus on rehabilitation rather than retribution. Child perpetrators can be subject to action, not criminal sanctions in prison, which are adjusted to their age and level of guilt. However, its implementation still faces challenges such as social stigma, limited capacity of foster institutions, and harmonization between the rights of children as perpetrators and the rights of victims.

The development of the criminal justice system in Indonesia, which was previously implemented with a retributive system, has not been fully able to fulfill the sense of justice for the community. A policy was issued with a restorative justice system that is oriented towards justice, considering that victims of criminal acts can not only experience material losses but are very likely to experience immaterial losses. The definition of restorative justice is an effort to provide a restoration of relationships and redemption of mistakes that the perpetrator of the crime (his family) wants to do to the victim of the crime (his family) with peace efforts outside the court. The intent and purpose are that legal problems that arise as a result of the criminal act can be resolved properly by reaching an agreement between the parties so that there is no element of revenge. This research is a type of normative juridical research, with the specification of descriptive analysis research. It uses research methods obtained by researchers indirectly through intermediary media and using library techniques, in analyzing the formulation of the problem using the theory of law application and the theory of legal protection. Restorative justice is currently not only a concern of the police and the Attorney General’s Office, but also the Supreme Court and several agencies in the Criminal Justice System in Indonesia. This can be seen from the issuance of a Joint Memorandum of Understanding between the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of the Republic of Indonesia, the Minister of Law and Human Rights of the Republic of Indonesia, the Attorney General of the Republic of Indonesia, the Chief of Police of the Republic of Indonesia Number 131/KMA/SKB/X/2012 Concerning the Implementation of the Application of Adjustments to the Limits of Minor Crimes, the Amount of Fines, Fast Examination Procedures, and the Application of Restorative Justice and Supreme Court Regulation Number 1 of 2024 concerning Guidelines for Trying Criminal Cases Based on Restorative Justice. This requires special attention to the implementation of handling every criminal case that prioritizes restorative justice, because there is a conflict of norms in its application and handling since it is contrary to the Criminal Procedure Code. So, an ideal concept is needed in the criminal justice system in Indonesia, namely its handling by the law enforcement institution of the Attorney General’s Office.

The right to immunity is a form of legal protection for advocates that guarantees that advocates as legal defenders cannot be prosecuted criminally, civilly, and administratively in carrying out their duties. However, several recent cases have highlighted the application of advocate immunity rights that show inconsistencies with the regulations. The research method used in this paper is normative juridical and data were collected through literature studies. The results of the study indicate that there is state recognition of the right to immunity for advocates through regulations in several laws and regulations. An example is the determination of a suspect by the Yogyakarta Regional Police against Meila, an advocate who was defending the rights of her client who was a victim of sexual violence, and questions regarding the limitations of the use of immunity rights in the case of Fredrich, former attorney for Setya Novanto who was involved in the e-KTP corruption case and was considered to have attempted to obstruct the investigation. These cases reflect the confusion of the concept of the application of immunity rights in Indonesia. This study aims to discuss the provisions of Indonesian law regarding the right to immunity for advocates and the role of immunity rights in supporting advocates in carrying out their professional responsibilities as law enforcers. In addition, this study examines the important role of immunity rights in supporting the legal process to run in an orderly manner in accordance

Procurement in the body of goods and services of the National Police is currently carried out electronically since the enactment of Law Number 11 of 2008 concerning Electronic Information and Transactions has been given broad legal space. E-procurement as an information system is a synergy between data, data processing machines (which usually include computers, application programs, and networks), and humans to produce information. This study uses a normative legal approach method with analytical descriptive research specifications. Secondary data comes from primary legal materials, secondary law, and tertiary law, as well as legal expert sources. Data collection through a mixed method between field data and literature. Data processing is carried out qualitatively, then conclusions are drawn using the inductive method. Research problems are analyzed using the theory of legal protection, theory of legal systems, and theory of legal certainty. The results of this study indicate that the effectiveness of the law on procurement of goods and services in the National Police in terms of the effectiveness of its legislation by referring to the organizational perspective on government procurement of goods and services and the role of supervisory institutions in government procurement of goods and services. The data collection was carried out by literature study with legal materials, namely laws and regulations. Data obtained from the literature study were qualitatively analyzed from an empirical perspective. The results of the study show that the law governing the procurement of goods and services has not provided sufficiently strict sanctions, leading to violations still occurring. But with the existence of e-procurement, procurement of goods and services has become more transparent.

The research aims to examine and analyze the regulation of women’s rights in divorce lawsuits. The research method used is legal research with a sociological legal approach, analyzed using feminist legal theory, progressive legal theory, and the theory of justice in Islamic law. The results of the study show that the regulation of women’s rights in divorce lawsuits at the Religious Court is very important to guarantee legal protection, justice, and the welfare of women after divorce. Based on Law No. 1 of 1974 and the Compilation of Islamic Law, women have the right to iddah, mut’ah, joint property, child custody, and child support. The justice approach through progressive law, feminist legal theory, and Islamic law strengthens protection for women who are often marginalized economically and socially. The Jepara Religious Court together with stakeholders must actively conduct legal socialization and provide execution funding assistance through the APBD (Regional Revenue and Expenditure Budget) or Village Funds to facilitate access to justice for women after divorce.

Adult age regulations for Indonesian residents are currently not based on dignity justice. This is because of the positive law that applies in Indonesia, where majority age is generally 18 years old. However, the provisions related to the age of adulthood or the age limit of children in Indonesia are regulated differently in laws and regulations. For this reason, it is necessary to reconstruct the adult age regulation for the Indonesian population. The formulation of the problem in this paper is: Why is the regulation of the age of adulthood for the Indonesian population currently not based on dignity justice? What are the weaknesses of the adult age regulation for the Indonesian population at this time? How reconstruction of adult age regulations for the Indonesian population based on dignity justice? Conclusion :1. Adult age regulations for the Indonesian population at this time are not based on dignity justice. 2. Weaknesses of adult age regulations for the Indonesian population at this time from the legal substance, namely, the regulation of adult age for the Indonesian population is still not uniform. The weakness of the legal structure is that there is still limited knowledge and understanding among law enforcement officials in health law. The weakness of the regulation of the adult age for the population in Indonesia at this time from the legal culture is that the legal culture in Indonesia today is still thick with the culture of “ewuh pekewuh”, the culture of maintaining people’s feelings so that they do not dare to voice the truth even though injustice occurs in front of our eyes. 3. Reconstruction of the value of justice of adult regulation for the Indonesian population based on dignity justice is to provide balanced legal protection to the entire community. The reconstruction of the legal norms of Article 150 of Law Number 1 of 2023 concerning the Criminal Code can result in adult age regulations for the Indonesian population in terms of legal benefits, legal certainty, and justice for society.

Attention to children as the next generation has important relevance in the development of human civilization. The approach method used in this research is the normative legal approach method, namely research that positions law as a system of norms regarding the principles, standards, rules of statutory regulations, court decisions, agreements, and doctrines (teachings). Children are not only national assets, but also have the right to protection and be provided with basic rights as regulated in the 1945 Constitution and related regulations. With the ratification of the Convention on the Rights of the Child and the enactment of Law No. 35 of 2014, the state is committed to protecting children from various forms of violence and discrimination. However, the reality shows that children in Indonesia still face many challenges, such as being exposed to violence committed by those closest to them. Therefore, there is a need for attention and real action to create a safe environment for children in all aspects of life.

This article examines the legal framework for the protection of journalists during armed conflict in light of the rules of international humanitarian law, particularly the Geneva Conventions and their additional protocols. It highlights the grave risks faced by journalists in conflict zones which may include direct targeting despite their status as civilians who must be respected and protected. The 2023 attack on the Gaza Strip witnessed unprecedented violations against journalists, with more than 219 journalists killed and dozens of media organizations directly targeted and destroyed. These acts constitute a flagrant violation of international humanitarian law and warrant consideration for their classification as war crimes and possibly even crimes against humanity, if proven to be intentional and systematic. This article presents the legal frameworks governing the protection of journalists, particularly in the Gaza Strip and the Palestinian territories during the 2023 assault on the Gaza Strip. It reviews the legal accountability mechanisms available to halt Israeli violations against journalists during the war and to prosecute those responsible for these violations, including through the International Criminal Court. Furthermore, it explores the principle of universal jurisdiction, which allows states to prosecute Israeli officials for these violations if they are arrested. In addition, there are international commissions of inquiry, along with human rights and media organizations, that document these violations and disseminate them through local, regional, and international media outlets, thus calling for those responsible to be held accountable. This article emphasizes that continued impunity poses a threat to the principle of protecting journalists and encourages the recurrence of violations. It calls for serious international action to ensure the protection of journalists, as they are the first line of defense for the truth during armed conflicts, especially Palestinian journalists who convey the truth and expose the crimes of the Israeli army during the assault on the Gaza Strip.

The regulation of the role of the government in collegium in Law Number 17 of 2023 concerning health has a different meaning and existence and role than the previous two laws. Therefore, there is a need to reconstruct the regulation of the role of the government in a collegium based on dignity justice, so that legal certainty, its usefulness, and justice can be felt by all Indonesian people. The formulation of the problem we propose is: Why is the regulation of the government’s role in collegium at this time not based on justice? What are the weaknesses of the government’s role in collegium at this time? And how is the regulatory reconstruction of the role of the government in a college based on dignity justice? The conclusions we can draw are: 1. The regulation of the government’s role in collegium in Indonesia at this time is not based on dignified justice. 2. Weaknesses of the Regulation of the Government’s Role in Collegium in Indonesia at this time from the substance of the law, namely, still overlaps and is not and is not yet specific, so it is not based on the dignity of the judiciary. The weakness of the regulation of the role of the government in collegium in Indonesia at this time from the legal structure, with a limited knowledge and understanding of law enforcement officials. Their way of thinking and acting is still not fair so this is not based on dignified justice. The weakness of the regulation of the government’s role in Collegium in Indonesia at this time from the legal culture, namely, the legal culture in Indonesia today is still thick with the culture of “ewuh pekewuh”. The culture of maintaining people’s feelings so that they do not dare to voice the truth even though injustice occurs in front of our eyes. In addition, the understanding and awareness of health law is still not high, so that the Government’s Role Regulation in Collegium in Indonesia is currently not based on dignity justice. 3. Reconstruction of the value of the government’s role Rrgulation in Collegium in Indonesia based on dignity justice is to provide balanced legal protection to all people. The reconstruction of the legal norms of Article 421 paragraph (2) part b of Law Number 17 of 2023 concerning health can result in a Regulation on the Government’s Role in Collegium in Indonesia that humanizes humans so that the benefits of law, legal certainty, and the side of justice can be felt by all levels of society.

This article reimagines Supriyo v Union of India, a constitutional judgment rendered by the Supreme Court of India in 2023 that denied the legal recognition of same-sex marriages. The rewritten judgment uses a critical queer lens and recognizes the right to marry as a constitutional guarantee grounded in dignity, autonomy, and equality. It rejects the heteronormative exclusions of the Special Marriage Act 1954 and foregrounds the lived experiences of queer couples. It illustrates how queer relationships can subvert patriarchal norms through consent-based relational models. Simultaneously, it proposes a nomination-based approach to delink legal benefits from marital status, enabling legal protection for diverse kinships. In doing so, the rewritten judgment queers marriage both structurally and substantively, while also ensuring legal recognition for non-marital forms of intimacy and care. Keywords: marriage equality; Indian Constitution; critical queer theory; anti-discrimination.

The rapid expansion of globalization has significantly increased cross-border economic activities, intensifying legal complexities in insolvency cases involving multinational entities. In Indonesia, Law No. 37 of 2004 on Bankruptcy and Suspension of Debt Payment Obligations governs domestic insolvency but lacks explicit provisions addressing cross-border insolvency. This regulatory gap exposes Indonesian creditors to heightened legal uncertainty and potential financial losses, particularly when debtor assets are located abroad and foreign ‎proceedings are not recognized domestically.‎ This paper critically examines the extent of legal protection afforded to Indonesian creditors in cross-border insolvency scenarios. ‎It evaluates the relevance and potential adoption of the UNCITRAL Model Law on Cross-Border Insolvency as a framework for reform. ‎Through a comparative analysis of Indonesia’s legal regime with that of Singapore and the Philippines, both of which have adopted the ‎Model Law. The study underscores the benefits of harmonized international insolvency procedures. Findings reveal that Indonesia’s current ‎reliance on reciprocity and ad hoc recognition mechanisms undermines predictability, judicial cooperation, and creditor confidence.‎ The study concludes by advocating for Indonesia’s adoption of the UNCITRAL Model Law to align its insolvency framework ‎with global standards. Such a reform would improve cross-border asset recovery, enhance creditor protection, and foster a more stable and ‎attractive investment environment‎.

This study aims to analyze the impact of restitution on the mental health of child victims of sexual intercourse from a long-term perspective through a longitudinal approach. The main focus of this research is to evaluate the effectiveness of restitution as a form of legal protection and psychological recovery for child victims of sexual crimes. The contribution of this study lies in reinforcing the argument that restitution is not merely financial compensation but also a crucial instrument in trauma recovery and the restoration of safety and self-worth in child victims. This research employs a juridical-empirical approach with a longitudinal method, combining normative analysis of restitution regulations with observation and interviews involving child victims who received restitution over a specific period. The findings conclude that restitution in criminal law functions as a form of recovery that is not limited to financial aspects but also serves as recognition of the victim’s suffering and as a component of restorative justice. This longitudinal study demonstrates that comprehensive restitution, supported by psychosocial interventions, has a positive impact on the mental health recovery of child victims of sexual abuse.

Legal protection measures for bioculturally valuable trees in Lower Silesia (Poland)

Land disputes frequently arise due to population growth and increasing land demands, where non-procedural land executions can harm holders of Certificate of Ownership (SHM). Although land certificates serve as strong proof of ownership under Article 19 of the Basic Agrarian Law (UUPA) and Article 32 of Government Regulation No. 24 of 1997, legal certainty for landowners remains incomplete. This study aims to analyze the legal protection for SHM holders facing non-procedural land executions. The research employs a normative juridical method with statutory and conceptual approaches, examining relevant laws and legal doctrines. The findings indicate that SHM holds strong evidentiary power as long as its physical and juridical data align with land survey documents and land registers. However, land executions must follow proper procedures, starting with an execution request and a court warning, while adhering to principles of legal certainty and justice. SHM holders subjected to non-procedural executions can file an objection to the execution or a lawsuit for Unlawful Acts (PMH) under Article 1365 of the Civil Code. Case, such as the forced eviction in Tambun (2025), highlight the importance of proper legal procedures. In conclusion, while SHM provides legal protection, measures such as execution objections and PMH lawsuits are necessary to safeguard landowners' rights. This study emphasizes the need for compliance with execution procedures and the protection of certificate holders to ensure legal certainty.