The specifics of religious studies and legal reflection on freedom of conscience in the context of modern social, socio-cultural and spiritual-religious transformations, caused by state policy, which is aimed, on the one hand, at the full provision of human rights and freedoms and the democratization of state-confessional relations, and on the other hand, at the protection of the constitutional order, national security and identity, are updated. The phenomenon of freedom of conscience as a fundamental and inalienable right of every person to free ideological choice, its full realization, protection and inviolability is meaningfully understood. In this regard, the concept and content of the institution of freedom of conscience and religion in the context of human rights and freedoms is revealed and the ideological value of the dominant views in the humanities regarding the historical formation and development of ideas about freedom of conscience is expressed, including the influence of various philosophical and religious-theological traditions. The content of positive trends in the field of legal support for freedom of conscience and religion is substantiated in order to formulate proposals and effective approaches to improving the legislation of Ukraine in the field of state-church relations, issues of freedom of conscience, legal guarantees for the functioning of religious organizations, that would reflect national interests and not contradict international standards. The basic elements of the problem of protecting the religious rights and freedoms of Ukrainian citizens are outlined, which can be considered one of the key elements of novelty obtained as a result of historical and religious studies retrospection and legal objectification of worldview sources of interpretation of freedom of conscience and religion

The paper examines the Latvian model of the judicial system of subjects authorized to hear administrative offence cases through a comparative analysis with the Ukrainian approach. The paper focuses on the institutional structure established by the Latvian Administrative Liability Law and demonstrates that Latvia has developed a conceptually different system from the post-Soviet codified model preserved in the Code of Ukraine on Administrative Offences. The Latvian approach is characterized by the separation of general principles of administrative liability from sectoral rules defining specific offences and sanctions, by the broad involvement of administrative authorities and municipal bodies as primary decision-makers, and by the preservation of judicial review as a guarantee of legality, proportionality and procedural fairness. It is established that the primary consideration of administrative offence cases in Latvia is concentrated within public administration bodies and officials, while courts perform a secondary, controlling function. The paper highlights that such a design excludes courts from the general structure of first-instance punitive response, except for narrowly defined categories, including cases related to state secrets, which fall within the jurisdiction of the Riga City Court. Particular attention is paid to the mechanisms for appealing administrative decisions to a higher official and, where appropriate, to a district court, as well as to the appellate role of the regional court. The paper also addresses the specific role of the prosecutor in Latvian proceedings and compares it with the limited prosecutorial powers provided by Ukrainian legislation. The author argues that the Latvian model is of practical and doctrinal significance for Ukraine because it offers an alternative understanding of administrative offence proceedings as an autonomous public-law procedure in which the court should not duplicate the functions of an administrative authority. Instead, the court should exercise judicial control and administer justice only where such intervention is necessary. The paper substantiates that the Latvian experience may be useful for rethinking the Ukrainian system of jurisdiction in administrative offence cases, improving legislative technique, and developing a more coherent distribution of powers between public administration and the judiciary.

This study explores the crisis of authority and erosion of professional dignity among teachers in Indonesia through a juridical and ethical lens. This research emphasizes the dissonance between existing legal guarantees and their practical implementation in protecting teachers as professional educators. Using a qualitative method and library research approach, this study examines constitutional, statutory, and regulatory provisions, such as Article 28D paragraph (1) of the 1945 Constitution, Law Number 14 of 2005 on Teachers and Lecturers, Government Regulation Number 19 of 2017, and the Indonesian Teachers’ Code of Ethics. Recent media reports highlighting violence against teachers, defamation cases, and administrative neglect were also analyzed to provide contextual evidence. The findings reveal that the government’s legal protection has been largely normative and declarative, with weak enforcement mechanisms that fail to ensure a sense of security and moral recognition for educators. The teaching profession is facing an internal decline in authority due to social distrust, shifting values in education, and institutional pressure that undermines teachers’ autonomy. This paper concludes that reinforcing juridical protection and revitalizing ethical standards are essential for restoring teachers’ dignity and authority within the national education framework. Collaborative synergy between state institutions, professional organizations, and the community is required to uphold justice, ensure teachers’ well-being, and reaffirm their moral standing as the cornerstone of national education.

The article analyzes legal guarantees for the protection of the rights of the child in the event of a change of citizenship in the context of international legal obligations and national law-enforcement practice. The child’s right to citizenship is examined as a fundamental right enshrined in the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, as well as the state’s obligations to prevent childhood statelessness, preserve the child’s identity, and take into account the best interests of the child when changing his or her legal status. Using the Republic of Kazakhstan as a case study, the article explores mechanisms for changing a child’s citizenship in connection with changes in the citizenship of parents, adoption, and other family-law circumstances, including the role of judicial and constitutional protection. It concludes that national regulation generally complies with international standards, while identifying certain problematic issues related to terminological ambiguity, the prohibition of dual citizenship, and the restoration of citizenship for persons who lost it in childhood. Measures are proposed to improve legislation and law-enforcement practice in order to strengthen legal guarantees and prevent statelessness.

Based on national and international practice, this article discusses telemedicine as a set of legal, technological, and ethical decisions that are an inevitable result of the modern healthcare system. This article aims to assess the adequacy of Georgia’s regulatory framework for telemedicine through a comparative analysis of international standards and national legislation, and to identify existing legal gaps. From the perspective of international law, the right to health is recognized as a fundamental human right, obligating states to ensure the accessibility, quality, and continuity of medical services for all citizens. Accordingly, the study focuses on the possibilities of telemedicine, which is an effective mechanism for providing continuous and high-quality medical services, especially in geographically remote, rural, and politically/strategically challenging regions. The research is based on doctrinal legal analysis, comparative examination of international and Georgian normative acts, and analysis of relevant case law. International instruments and standards examined include World Health Organization (WHO) recommendations, ISO 13131:2021, the EU General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR), and the U.S. Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA), and relevant jurisprudence of European and U.S. courts. Georgian healthcare, medical practice, and data protection legislation were analyzed to assess regulatory compatibility and implementation practice. Taking into account the realities of Georgia, the article analyzes national legislation and the existing practice of developing telemedicine. Special attention is paid to the possibilities of implementing telemedicine in politically and strategically difficult regions as one of the effective mechanisms for ensuring continuous and high-quality medical services for the population. Based on the results of the study, which is based on the analysis of international practice and regulatory standards, the article presents recommendations for strengthening the legal framework of telemedicine in Georgia, which takes into account the protection of patient rights, strengthening professional responsibility standards, and improving access to medical services in politically and strategically difficult regions. The study reveals that although Georgian legislation allows telemedicine within the framework of general medical regulation, it lacks: a unified legal definition of telemedicine; specific binding standards for remote informed consent procedures; detailed regulation of cross-border and regional licensing issues; explicit clinical quality assurance mechanisms tailored to remote healthcare services; and specialized liability rules adapted to digital medical practice. International standards demonstrate a trend toward harmonization based on patient rights protection, data security, professional accountability, and technological interoperability, while Georgia’s framework remains fragmented and indirectly regulated. To strengthen the legal framework for telemedicine in Georgia, the study recommends: adopting a comprehensive legal definition and regulatory act dedicated to telemedicine; establishing mandatory digital informed consent standards; introducing telemedicine-specific certification and liability provisions; strengthening state supervision and quality control mechanisms; and improving legal guarantees for safe telemedicine practice in politically and geographically complex regions. The development of a coherent telemedicine regulatory model would contribute to the effective realization of the right to health, enhance access to quality medical services, and align Georgian practice with evolving international standards.

This study examines the ontological security of the individuals in relation to the realization of human rights and analyzes the impact of violations of rights on individuals’ perceptions of ontological security. After outlining the historical and conceptual foundations of security, the study explores how ontological security is constructed at both the individual and societal levels. Focusing on the relationship between ontological security and human rights, the research demonstrates that access to fundamental rights and freedoms plays a decisive role in individuals’ psychological and social security. In this context, the study emphasizes that feeling secure is not limited to protection from physical threats, but must also be supported by social, economic, and legal guarantees. The findings reveal that modern security policies particularly in the areas of counterterrorism, refugee policies, ethnic and religious discrimination, and global pandemics can undermine individuals’ senses of identity and belonging, thereby producing conditions of ontological insecurity. Ultimately, the study highlights the crucial role of human rights based security policies in protecting individuals’ ontological security and fostering social stability and peace.

The digital age has stimulated innovation momentum and brought about new types of digital risks. Legislative guarantee for scientific and technological innovation is the key to driving the new productive forces and supporting the high-quality development of the digital economy. At present, the national-level legislation on scientific and technological innovation in China presents a pattern of "strategic guidance - legislative strengthening - reform guarantee". However, in legislative practice, Anhui is faced with three dilemmas: the lack of digital justice in the legislative mechanism, the ineffective connection between legislative content and the development needs of new productive forces, and the insufficient integration and absorption of digital governance practice in the legislative process. To this end, with the allocation of rights and obligations as the basic category and liability regulation clauses as the normative carrier, an institutional framework should be constructed from three dimensions: comprehensive value guidance, innovation-oriented encouragement, and prudent and inclusive supervision. This will realize the in-depth integration of legal norms for scientific and technological innovation and local governance practice, and provide a solid legal guarantee for Anhui to build a source of scientific and technological innovation.

The article examines mediation as a modern and non-confrontational mechanism[1] of conflict management[2], the effectiveness of which significantly depends on the legal guarantees for the enforcement of mediation settlements. This study aims to provide a systematic analysis and evaluation of the legal mechanisms for enforcing mediation agreements in Georgia and in international practice. Furthermore, the present study reflects the legislative amendments adopted on 9 December 2025 to the Law of Georgia on Mediation (hereinafter – the Law) and to Chapter XLIV¹³ of the Civil Procedure Code of Georgia (hereinafter – the Code), within the framework of which two fundamental dimensions of mediation were substantially modified: (a) the legal regime governing the enforcement of private and court-annexed mediated settlement agreements; and (b) the institutional mechanisms relating to mediators’ professional ethics and disciplinary responsibility. Although this reform represents a new stage in the institutional development of mediation in Georgia - aimed at harmonising the mediation framework with international standards and strengthening professional regulation - it is also accompanied by certain theoretical and practical challenges. In particular, under the new wording of Article 208(1) of the Code, according to which a settlement agreement reached through court mediation is approved by the court in the same ruling, it remains unclear whether such a mediated settlement is subject to automatic enforcement without an additional application by the parties, and whether this could be regarded as a limitation of one of the fundamental principles of mediation, namely the principle of voluntariness. The article examines the role of the Singapore Convention in facilitating the enforcement of settlement agreements reached through international mediation and assesses its impact across European, Asian, and Anglo-American legal systems. Comparative analysis highlights key challenges and approaches for strengthening the reliability and standards of enforcing mediated settlements. It also offers recommendations to enhance the transparency, efficiency, and credibility of mediation at both national and international levels, including clarifying judicial discretion in enforcement refusals, defining essential settlement requirements, integrating hybrid mediation models, and harmonizing international enforcement practices. In light of recent legislative amendments, the paper further proposes an interpretative approach to distinguish the enforcement regimes applicable to settlements reached through private and court-annexed mediation. [1] Kriesberg L., Northrup T. A., Northrup, Constructive Conflicts: From Escalation to Resolution, Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2017, 2. [2] Roberts M., Mediation in Family Disputes: Principles of Practice. Ashgate Publishing, 2008, 229.

Adopting the concept of the electronic notary public is one of the most important outcomes of digital transformation in the judicial field, representing a qualitative leap in the mechanisms for documenting and proving legal transactions. Electronic documentation is no longer merely an alternative technological means, but has become a comprehensive legal system that necessitates a re-evaluation of traditional notarial concepts, especially in light of the rapid development of electronic transactions and their increasing reliance in various fields. Therefore, the implementation of this system cannot be achieved without establishing a comprehensive set of legal safeguards that protect both notaries and those dealing electronically. These safeguards include ensuring the legal validity of electronic documents and signatures, guaranteeing reliable verification of identity and proof of intent, protecting personal data and confidentiality, precisely defining legal responsibilities, and guaranteeing the right to appeal and judicial oversight of electronic notarial acts. These guarantees are a prerequisite for building trust in electronic documentation and promoting its acceptance at the practical and judicial levels. Therefore, the electronic notary is no longer a legislative luxury or a future option to be postponed, but has become a legal necessity imposed by the nature of modern transactions and the requirements of digital justice. Thus, adopting this system within an integrated legislative framework and effective legal guarantees would contribute to developing the judicial documentation system, enhancing trust in official documents, and achieving greater efficiency and transparency in judicial work

The expansion of digital technologies has reshaped the exercise of fundamental rights, prompting growing scholarly and regulatory attention to the notion of digital human rights. As digital platforms increasingly structure communication, access to information, and social participation, existing legal categories face conceptual and practical strain. While some accounts portray digital rights as a straightforward extension of classical human rights, others emphasize their transformative impact on constitutional principles, enforcement mechanisms, and the distribution of power between public authorities and private actors. This paper situates digital rights within contemporary academic debates and emerging regulatory frameworks in order to clarify their normative scope and conceptual boundaries. It advances the argument that digital rights cannot be adequately understood through purely legal or purely technological lenses. Instead, they emerge at the intersection of constitutional law, digital governance, and public policy, where regulatory instruments, institutional design, and educational strategies jointly shape the conditions for rights protection. The analysis highlights the constitutional paradox of digital platforms, which exercise functions traditionally associated with public authority while remaining only partially subject to democratic accountability and judicial oversight. Drawing on European constitutional principles, supranational regulation, and policy initiatives, the study demonstrates how current legal frameworks seek to respond to private digital power while revealing their structural limits in data-driven and algorithmic environments. At the same time, scholarship on Media and Information Literacy is mobilized to show how citizens’ informational capacities function as a normative complement to legal safeguards, enabling individuals to exercise their rights meaningfully rather than merely formally. By integrating legal doctrine, public policy analysis, and MIL, this article contributes a coherent analytical framework for understanding digital rights as a hybrid normative construct. It concludes that the effective protection of digital rights depends not only on legal guarantees and regulatory enforcement, but also on policy choices that strengthen individual and collective capacities within the digital public sphere.

Environmental protection in India has evolved from a policy objective into a constitutional imperative through judicial interpretation of the right to life under Article 21 of the Constitution. Over the past four decades, the Indian judiciary has recognized the right to a clean and healthy environment as an essential component of human dignity, public health, and sustainable development. Despite this strong constitutional foundation and a comprehensive statutory framework designed to prevent and control pollution, environmental degradation continues to threaten ecological balance and human well-being. This paradox exposes a persistent gap between legal guarantees and environmental reality. This paper critically examines the enforcement failures that undermine India’s constitutional commitment to environmental protection. It traces the evolution of constitutional environmentalism and analyses the expansion of environmental rights through public interest litigation and judicial activism. The study evaluates statutory mechanisms and regulatory institutions responsible for pollution control and identifies key challenges including weak monitoring capacity, institutional fragmentation, procedural dilution in environmental impact assessments, lack of transparency, and inadequate accountability for industrial violations. The paper further explores the role of judicial intervention in shaping environmental governance, highlighting landmark decisions that introduced principles such as sustainable development, the precautionary principle, absolute liability, and the polluter pays principle. However, excessive reliance on judicial remedies reveals systemic administrative weaknesses and ineffective regulatory enforcement. Drawing comparative insights from environmental enforcement regimes in the United States and the United Kingdom, the paper emphasizes the importance of transparency, technological monitoring, public participation, and strong compliance systems. It concludes that India’s environmental crisis stems not from legal inadequacy but from implementation failure. Strengthening institutional capacity, enhancing accountability, and integrating sustainable governance practices are essential to realizing environmental justice and ensuring ecological sustainability for present and future generations. Keywords: Constitutional Environmentalism, Environmental Rights, Judicial Activism, Environmental Enforcement Failure, Sustainable Development

It is indicated that the right of a person to a fair trial and an effective remedy for legal protection belongs to the fundamental principles of a state governed by law. Article 55 of the Constitution of Ukraine declares that every person has the opportunity to challenge in court the decisions, actions or inaction of state authorities, local self-government bodies, officials and service personnel. The article provides a comprehensive analysis of the effectiveness of judicial remedies in administrative proceedings through the lens of the well-established case-law of the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR). Particular attention is given to the substantive criteria employed by the ECtHR to assess the efficiency of national protection mechanisms, including the practical capability to restore the violated right, the ability of the remedy to eliminate the consequences of unlawful interference, the substantive correlation between the chosen remedy and the nature of the violation, the accessibility and adequacy of the procedure, the mandatory and timely enforcement of judicial decisions, and compliance with the reasonable-time requirement. The study emphasizes that the mere formal possibility to apply to a court cannot be regarded as an effective remedy if it does not ensure practical and enforceable outcomes. Based on key judgments such as Kudła v. Poland, Hornsby v. Greece, Frydlender v. France, Scordino v. Italy (No. 1), Volkov v. Ukraine, Rysovskyy v. Ukraine, and Shmalko v. Ukraine, the article outlines essential standards that national remedies must meet to fully restore the individual’s prior legal status and guarantee timely enforcement. It is demonstrated that these criteria align with Articles 6 §1 and 13 of the Convention and must be considered by Ukrainian administrative courts in accordance with the Constitution of Ukraine and the Law on the Enforcement of ECtHR Judgments. Integrating ECtHR standards into judicial practice ensures genuine, rather than merely declaratory, protection of rights, eliminates legal uncertainty, strengthens judicial oversight over public authorities, and reinforces the rule of law within Ukraine’s administrative justice system.

It is indicated that the current security challenges and foreign policy situation of Ukraine determine the need to rethink the regional policy of the state in the context of armed aggression. Traditional models of the distribution of powers between the central government and the regions are insufficiently adapted to the conditions of martial law, which creates the need for a legal and institutional review of the mechanisms for managing regional development, ensuring the security of the population and the restoration of affected territories. The article examines the national and regional security of Ukraine under contemporary security threats caused by armed aggression. It is argued that the modern concept of security extends beyond purely military or defensive dimension and includes legal, administrative, economic, social, and humanitarian components that determine regional resilience and the capacity of territories to function in crisis conditions. On the basis of analysis of the legal framework, academic approaches, and selected practices of regional recovery, the article identifies key factors influencing the effectiveness of state regional policy, including interagency coordination, institutional capacity of public authorities, strategic planning, adaptability of response mechanisms, and the involvement of local communities in security-related decision-making. It is emphasized that the transformation of regional policy in conditions of aggression cannot occur outside the framework of international legal and constitutional legal guarantees of human rights, as ensuring access to fundamental rights such as personal security, housing, education, and healthcare constitutes a prerequisite for population return, reintegration of deoccupied territories, and the legitimacy of state decisions in the sphere of recovery. The article concludes that a sustainable system of national and regional security requires synergy between state and societal institutions, modernization of public administration, and a strategic development model based on regional specificities, resilience, adaptability, comprehensiveness, and the primacy of human rights in security policy.

The present study poses os its research problem the investigation of how the requirement of prior authorization for legal professionals to make recordings during public hearings results in restrictions or limitations on the professional prerogatives of the legal profession. The general objective of the research is to understand the legal foundations of recording as a right linked to the full exercise of the right of defense and to the transparency of procedural acts, as well as the practical conflicts arising from this requirement. As specific objectives, the study seeks to analyze, based on the opinions of legal professionals, how Normative Act No. 0003626-80.2025.2.00.0000, a resolution issued by the National Council of Justice (CNJ), impacts professional prerogatives and the dignity of the legal profession. The choice of this topic is justified by its legais and social relevance, as it directly involves the effectiveness of procedural legal guarantees, the promotion of transparency in judicial acts, and the preservation of the dignity of legal practice. The recent restrictions imposed by the CNJ raise questions regarding the compatibility of these measures with fundamental rights, making this discussion essential for understanding the ethical, legal, and institutional challenges that permeate the Brazilian justice system. With regard to methodological procedures, the research adopts the hypothetical-deductive method, employing bibliographic and documentary research, as well as semi-structured interviews. The approach is qualitative, and in terms of objectives, the research is characterized as exploratory and explanatory.

The article examines judicial protection in disputes regarding public procurement as a tool for ensuring the economic security of the state. It is substantiated that public procurement, being one of the largest channels for distributing budget funds, belongs to the areas of increased corruption risks, and therefore requires effective control and appeal mechanisms. It is shown that the national model of protecting the rights of procurement participants combines extrajudicial (administrative) appeal in the Antimonopoly Committee of Ukraine and judicial control as the final guarantee of legality. The quasi-judicial nature of the procedures for considering complaints by the appeal body and their practical effectiveness due to integration with the electronic system "Prozorro" are highlighted, in particular through the automatic suspension of procurement actions during the consideration of the complaint. At the same time, the emphasis is placed on the limited integration of judicial control with the electronic procurement infrastructure, which complicates the execution of decisions to secure the claim and sometimes leads to the formal nature of judicial protection. A comparative analysis of appeal mechanisms in Ukraine and EU countries (in particular, on the example of Poland) was conducted, which confirmed the compliance of the Ukrainian model with European approaches according to the general architecture of “quasi-judicial body – court”, but at the same time revealed a significantly higher intensity of appeals to the appeal body in Ukraine and differences in the rates of satisfaction of complaints. It was concluded that judicial protection in the field of public procurement performs a preventive and restorative function: it deters abuse, creates legal certainty, supports competition and business confidence, and also promotes the rational use of public finances. It is proposed to direct further improvement of the system to increasing the efficiency of the execution of court decisions and strengthening the procedural and technical interaction of courts with the electronic procurement system.

The rapid integration of artificial intelligence into legal practice raises fundamental questions about its compatibility with criminal justice, a field that has traditionally been based on human judgment and discretion. This relevance becomes particularly acute with regard to evaluative concepts, which are indispensable for context-sensitive decision-making but at the same time create risks of inconsistency and unpredictability. Against this backdrop, this article aims to assess whether artificial intelligence can function as an auxiliary tool for the application of evaluative concepts in criminal proceedings and whether such use is legally and economically justified. The object of the study is the application of evaluative concepts in criminal justice, and the subject is the economic and legal consequences of applying artificial intelligence to evaluative concepts. The study is based on doctrinal legal analysis, comparative legal reasoning, and the methodology of law and economics as a theoretical and methodological basis. By synthesising legal theory and economic analysis, the article considers artificial intelligence as a normative problem and as a tool for optimising economic efficiency. The article demonstrates that artificial intelligence can enhance analytical capabilities in criminal proceedings by systematising large volumes of case law, identifying patterns in the application of evaluative concepts, and highlighting deviations from established trends in decision-making. As a result, artificial intelligence can contribute to greater consistency and predictability in judicial practice. At the same time, the study reveals structural limitations of algorithmic approaches, in particular reduced sensitivity to unique contextual factors, difficulties in providing normative justification, and the risk of reinforcing existing interpretative patterns. From an economic perspective, the analysis shows that artificial intelligence has the potential to reduce transaction costs, optimise the allocation of judicial resources and speed up procedural decision-making, provided that its use remains auxiliary rather than substitutive. The practical value of the study lies in substantiating a balanced model for integrating artificial intelligence into criminal justice, in which algorithmic tools serve as analytical aids, while final decisions remain under human control, ensuring both efficiency and compliance with fundamental legal guarantees.

Freedom of conscience represents one of the central pillars of human dignity and democratic coexistence. Recognized as a fundamental human right, it ensures that each person can form, hold, and express personal convictions – whether religious, moral, philosophical or non-religious – without coercion or discrimination. This paper explores the foundational role that freedom of conscience plays in three key domains: human rights, education, and sustainable peace. First, the study examines how freedom of conscience emerged historically as a legal and moral safeguard against authoritarian interference in inner belief, becoming an essential component of modern human rights frameworks. Second, it analyzes the implications of this freedom in the educational sphere, arguing that authentic education must cultivate critical thinking, autonomy, moral responsibility, and respect for pluralism. The paper highlights the importance of schools and universities as environments where diverse worldviews can coexist and where students learn to articulate and justify their beliefs in a spirit of tolerance. Third, the research investigates the contribution of freedom of con-science to sustainable peace. By reducing ideological extremism, promoting dialogue, and legitimizing diversity, this freedom strengthens social cohesion and helps prevent conflicts rooted in identity-based tensions. The study concludes that freedom of conscience is not merely an individual right, but a structural condition for democratic stability, intellectual development, and peaceful coexistence. Protecting it requires legal guarantees, pedagogical strategies, and a culture of respect for human diversity.

The school inclusion of students with special needs in early childhood education is a central topic in contemporary education, as it lays the foundation for children’s cognitive, social, and emotional development. Despite legal guarantees in Brazil, the effective implementation of inclusion faces pedagogical, structural, and social challenges. This article aims to analyze the main obstacles faced in the inclusion of children with special needs in early childhood education, considering the perspectives of teachers, schools, and families. This is a qualitative research of a bibliographic nature, based on a review of national and international literature. The results indicate that the lack of specific teacher training, the scarcity of adapted educational resources, physical barriers, and difficulty in family engagement are the main challenges. It is concluded that effective inclusion in early childhood education depends on consistent public policies, teacher training, school adaptation, and active family participation.

Legal certainty through customary land registration raises the issue of the existence of customary law communities in national land law politics as well as preventive legal protection through registration of customary land. Recognition of customary law communities with customary rights according to customary law needs to be interpreted as recognition of the customary law system in the land sector. This research method is normative legal juridical research, which is a type of research used to look at legal aspects in social interactions in society. This type of research is normative juridical research, namely legal research whose object of study includes legislative provisions or also called library legal research. Library legal research is research conducted by examining library materials or secondary data only. The problem approach used in this research, namely: statute approach, and conceptual approach. Based on the results of this writing, it is found that the urgency of registering land rights is the legal protection and guarantee of legal certainty for holders of land rights, thus creating a sense of security over the land they control. The registration of customary land into management rights does not guarantee legal certainty and protection of the customary rights of Masyarakat Hukum Adat.

HRMARS - Foreign direct investment (FDI) is a key driver of economic diversification and competitiveness in Gulf economies, making its legal regulation increasingly significant. This study is motivated by the UAE’s legislative shift following Federal Decree-Law No. 26 of 2020, which repealed the Foreign Direct Investment Law and integrated FDI regulation into the Commercial Companies Law. Despite these reforms, a gap remains in the literature regarding the adequacy and clarity of investor protection under a unified legal framework, particularly when compared with jurisdictions maintaining independent investment legislation such as Kuwait. The study aims to analyze and compare the legal rules, guarantees, and incentives governing FDI in the UAE and Kuwait. Adopting a comparative analytical legal methodology, the research examines statutory provisions, executive regulations, and investment treaties. The findings indicate that the UAE has liberalized foreign ownership but relies on dispersed guarantees, while Kuwait adopts a more coherent statutory framework. Comparatively, the Kuwaiti model offers greater legal certainty, enhancing its effectiveness in attracting foreign direct investment. his study contributes to comparative investment law scholarship by identifying legislative strengths and gaps in both systems and by providing policy-oriented insights aimed at enhancing investor protection and regulatory certainty in the UAE.