Anorexia Nervosa is an eating disorder typified by low body weight, restrictive eating behaviours, and body image distortion. It is associated with significant risk of medical complications, with one of the highest mortality rates of any mental illness. While the majority of patients receive treatment on a voluntary basis, a small proportion of severely ill patients refuse treatment and are treated involuntarily. The legal mechanisms used for involuntary treatment vary between jurisdictions, including mental health law, capacity-based law, guardianship, and use of inherent jurisdiction, the power of a superior court to rule on matters not included in statute. In Ireland, involuntary treatment of anorexia nervosa occurs within a legislative lacuna, not regulated by either the Mental Health Act 2001, or the Assisted Decision Making (Capacity) Act, 2015. Instead, treatment occurs under the Inherent Jurisdiction of the High Court, resulting in reliance on judicial discretion for decision-making. In this article, we explore the gaps in Ireland's current legal framework as applicable to care and treatment of anorexia nervosa, with reference to case law in England and Wales as a comparison. This includes an examination of the potential impact of the proposed changes to legislation as set out in the Mental Health Bill, 2024. We argue that these gaps mean that legislation governing the involuntary treatment of anorexia nervosa is urgently needed to safeguard the rights of this potentially vulnerable patient cohort, and ensure justice, transparency and consistency in legal approach.

The problem in this research is about the binding power of the use of cryptocurrencies in electronic business transactions as a medium for buying and selling transactions. Meanwhile, money in Islam is the same as the currency that is determined in the policy in Indonesia, namely it has value, is generally accepted, and has a certain type that has been determined. In addition, what is called a legal medium of exchange is only recognized as an asset, not a legal currency in Indonesia. This research uses a normative legal (library-based) approach with a statute approach to analyze legal regulations for crypto asset owners in conducting digital transactions in Indonesia. Based on the results of the research, it is known that there are differences between policy provisions electronic transactions and currency laws as well as the provisions of the Civil Code. The difference that exists occurs in business transactions using cryptocurrencies as currency in buying and selling transactions in the digital era using the internet network. The use of crypto does not have binding force in even though the terms and pillars of the agreement have been met. because it still contains elements of gharar, dharar and qimar in accordance with the opinions of the scholars and hasik of the 7th MUI Ijtima Ulama Year 2021. Therefore, their use as a medium of exchange is considered prohibited and lacks legal protection under Indonesian law.

The phenomenon of cyberbullying is increasingly prevalent and has serious impacts on individuals’ psychological and moral conditions, especially among adolescents. This study aims to analyze cyberbullying through the perspectives of humanity and moral autonomy based on the thought of Immanuel Kant. The method used is qualitative-descriptive with a literature study approach. The results show that cyberbullying contradicts Kant’s categorical imperative, which emphasizes respect for human dignity and actions based on universal principles. Low levels of digital literacy and ethical awareness are the main factors contributing to this behavior. In conclusion, addressing cyberbullying requires not only legal approaches but also the strengthening of moral education and digital ethics to build a more responsible and civilized society.

Scholarship on the interaction between Islamic law and international humanitarian law (IHL) has grown considerably, yet much of it remains confined to abstract doctrinal comparison and has yet to engage seriously with how these frameworks operate in real armed conflicts shaped by religious identity. This study addresses that lacuna through a focused examination of the 2023–2026 Gaza conflict, in which legal norms, religious identity, and military practice intersect. The analysis asks how the principles of distinction and proportionality are understood within fiqh al-jihād and IHL with respect to civilian protection, and how those interpretations shape application in asymmetric conflicts involving both state and non-state actors. Employing a qualitative, comparative, and socio-legal methodology, the study advances three principal findings. First, both legal traditions affirm an obligation to protect civilians through the principles of distinction, proportionality, and humanity, although they rest on distinct normative foundations. Second, divergences in practice arise less from doctrinal conflict than from political interest and the strategic deployment of legal narrative by the parties. Third, these dynamics sustain persistent gaps in civilian protection that are often entrenched by selective legal framing and weak accountability. Based on these findings, the study proposes a “Gaza Convergence Model” as a framework for more operational engagement between the two traditions. By aligning shared principles while acknowledging irreducible differences, the model seeks to strengthen both the legitimacy and the effectiveness of civilian protection in armed conflict. More broadly, the study argues for culturally grounded legal approaches and for sustained dialogue between religious and international legal orders.

This study examines the effectiveness of labor law enforcement in Indonesia, focusing on the implementation of final and binding decisions of the industrial relations court (pengadilan hubungan industrial—PHI). Although such decisions are legally obligatory, empirical conditions demonstrate frequent employer non-compliance, resulting in the continued denial of workers’ normative rights. Using a normative-empirical legal approach, this study examines industrial relations dispute settlement (PPHI law) regulations, assesses employers’ legal obligations, and identifies institutional and socio-legal barriers to law enforcement. Empirical evidence from the Manado District Court in 2023–2024 indicates that several favorable worker decisions remained unenforced despite formal enforcement notices issued by national courts. The findings indicate systemic weaknesses across three interrelated dimensions: legal substance, reflected in limitations of procedural and executive norms; legal structure, characterized by weak supervision, limited enforcement authority, and inadequate institutional coordination; and legal culture, marked by low compliance and the absence of effective deterrent sanctions. These conditions illustrate a clear disparity between normative legal expectations (das Sollen) and practical implementation (das Sein). Therefore, this study recommends regulatory reform, institutional strengthening, and harmonization of enforcement mechanisms to enhance legal certainty, reinforce judicial authority, and ensure effective protection of workers’ rights nationally.

The Omnibus Law on Job Creation is a significant piece of regulatory reform introduced by the Indonesian government to boost investment competitiveness and stimulate economic growth by streamlining cross-sector regulations, including labour law. However, the reform has sparked debate about whether workers, particularly contract workers who are vulnerable in the labour market, are adequately protected by the law. This research aims to analyse the complexities surrounding the implementation of the Omnibus Law on Job Creation and its implications for the welfare and legal protection of contract workers in Indonesia. This research employs a qualitative legal approach, using document analysis and network content analysis of industrial relations dispute decisions issued by the Supreme Court of the Republic of Indonesia between 2020 and 2024. NVivo 12 Plus was used to support systematic coding and visualisation. The results indicate that, while regulatory changes under the Omnibus Law increase labour market flexibility, they also create legal uncertainty for contract workers, affecting income stability, employment security and access to labour rights. It is concluded that the policy creates an imbalance between investment-oriented objectives and the constitutional mandate to protect workers' welfare. Therefore, a regulatory review and a more inclusive policy formulation process are necessary to ensure fair and sustainable labour protection.

This study examines the normative tension between state sovereignty and investor legal certainty within the framework of international investment arbitration. Employing a doctrinal legal approach, the research analyzes statutory regulations, international legal instruments, and arbitral jurisprudence to assess how legal norms structure the relationship between regulatory authority and investment protection. The findings indicate that arbitration does not eliminate state sovereignty but reconfigures it through legality, proportionality, and good faith standards. Legal certainty for investors is contingent upon compliance with domestic law, while states retain authority to regulate in pursuit of public interests. The study further demonstrates that inconsistencies in regulatory design and institutional capacity intensify disputes and undermine normative balance. Accordingly, a coherent legal framework integrating national legislation, contractual design, and international commitments is required to ensure equilibrium. The research contributes to doctrinal development by proposing a prescriptive model that aligns sovereignty with investor protection in a dynamic legal order while emphasizing the necessity of interpretative coherence, judicial consistency, and regulatory clarity in contemporary investment governance systems globally today.

Administrative law has a crucial role in regulating governance, including in the context of the roles and responsibilities of public officials. Analysis of legal views on the role of public officials is important to understand the legal basis that governs their behavior and decisions in carrying out public service duties. This study uses a normative legal approach by collecting data from various administrative law sources, including laws, regulations, and related court decisions. A critical analysis examines the legal view of public officials' roles and their implications for administrative practice. In-depth literature reviews were conducted to develop a conceptual framework grounded in relevant theories of administrative law

Islamic boarding schools (Pesantren), as fundamental Islamic educational institutions in Indonesian society, have full responsibility for the welfare of their students. However, discourse on students’ rights is often more focused on education and religious freedom, while the dimension of the right to safe, adequate, and healthy infrastructure is often neglected. This article aims to analyze the juridical-normative position of infrastructure as a fundamental element in the fulfillment of students’ basic rights. Using a normative legal approach, this study examines the relevant regulatory framework, including Law No. 35 of 2014 on Child Protection, Law No. 20 of 2003 on the National Education System, and Law No. 18 of 2019 on Islamic Boarding Schools. The analysis focuses on how the obligations of the state and Islamic boarding school administrators to provide a safe environment, as mandated by children’s rights to survival, growth, and development, inherently include the provision of infrastructure that meets safety, health, and appropriateness standards. The analysis shows that infrastructure is not merely a supporting facility, but rather a prerequisite for realizing the rights to education, health, and protection from physical and psychological violence. Failure to provide adequate infrastructure constitutes negligence that violates the fundamental rights of Islamic boarding school students. Therefore, this article recommends strengthening the state’s oversight mechanism for infrastructure standards in Islamic boarding schools, while not neglecting institutional autonomy, to ensure comprehensive protection of students’ rights and their fulfillment.

The phenomenon of insurance company defaults indicates the existence of legal uncertainty that directly impacts the weak protection afforded to policyholders as the aggrieved party in the contractual relationship. This situation reflects a gap between applicable legal norms and their implementation in practice, particularly regarding supervision, transparency, and dispute resolution mechanisms in the financial services sector. This study aims to analyze legal certainty for policyholders in cases of insurance company defaults through a normative legal approach. The methods used include legislative and conceptual approaches, utilizing primary, secondary, and tertiary legal sources analyzed qualitatively. The research results indicate that although the regulatory framework has established protections for policyholders, its effectiveness remains limited due to weak supervision, an imbalance in the positions of the parties involved, and the suboptimal roles of the policy guarantee institution and dispute resolution mechanisms. The discussion underscores the importance of strengthening a legal protection system that is both preventive and repressive to ensure legal certainty and enhance public confidence in the insurance industry.

This article examines the formation, structure, and current status of the legal framework for the socio-cultural rehabilitation of people with disabilities in Russia in the context of the development of inclusive practices in cultural institutions. The relevance of this study stems from the government's increasing focus on accessibility of the cultural environment, the transition to an inclusive model of cultural policy, and the need for regulatory support for comprehensive rehabilitation, in which cultural institutions act not as auxiliary but as fully-fledged components. The aim of this work is to systematize key regulations defining the content, forms, and mechanisms of socio-cultural rehabilitation, identify gaps, duplications, and contradictions in legal regulation, and substantiate a structured system of regulatory information necessary for cultural institution managers to develop, implement, and evaluate programs. The scientific novelty of this article lies in its presentation of the regulatory framework as a holistic, albeit internally heterogeneous, field, including documents of various levels and departmental affiliations. It identifies the stages of its evolution from a predominantly social and medical logic to the recognition of the sociocultural component of rehabilitation. It also emphasizes the specific position of cultural institutions in the system of comprehensive rehabilitation and habilitation. The materials used include a set of federal, regional, and municipal acts for the period 1990–2026. The methodological basis consists of a content analysis of regulatory documents, structural-logical, and comparative legal approaches, which allowed us to identify stable trends, areas of uncertainty, and practical risks for cultural organizations. The article concludes that regulation is dynamic yet fragmented, necessitating the systematization and harmonization of regulatory requirements, clarification of the status of cultural institutions, and the strengthening of interdepartmental coordination and methodological support. The article is addressed to the heads and specialists of cultural institutions, developers of socio-cultural rehabilitation programs, cultural management bodies, as well as researchers dealing with issues of inclusion, accessibility of the cultural environment and legal support for cultural policy.

Advances in information technology have facilitated the digitalization of several industries, including trade, by enabling more efficient communication and data exchange. Previous research has shown that the expansion of e-commerce presents legal challenges, particularly in terms of the application of exemption clauses by commercial actors. Therefore, the expansion of digital commerce must be consistent with the principles set out in Law Number 7 of 2014 concerning Trade and Law Number 11 of 2008 concerning Electronic Information and Transactions (ITE), as amended by Law Number 19 of 2016 and Law Number 1 of 2024. Both regulations provide the legal basis that must be implemented to provide fairness and legal certainty in e-commerce transactions. This study takes a normative legal approach and incorporates qualitative legal analysis of relevant legal standards. The research presented provides a critical perspective on the need for appropriate and enforceable legislative restrictions to protect the interests of all parties involved in e-commerce.

Cyberterrorism is a contemporary form of crime that exploits information technology to threaten national data security and public welfare. This study aims to assess the effectiveness of Indonesian positive law in addressing cyber terrorism and to evaluate its Impact on critical national infrastructure, such as transportation, energy, and public services, which may result in substantial financial losses and operational disruptions. This study was conducted descriptively and analytically, systematically describing existing facts through a normative legal approach, utilizing laws and regulations as primary data. The study reveals the absence of specific laws that explicitly regulate cyberterrorism crimes, resulting in legal uncertainty and enforcement challenges. Accordingly, it is imperative to reinforce the legal framework and enhance international collaboration to address this threat effectively.

This study examines the revitalization of Pancasila values in the digital era as a strategic framework for strengthening moral and civic awareness among Indonesian youth. Amid rapid technological development and globalization, national identity, social cohesion, and ethical values face increasing challenges. Using a descriptive-analytical method with a conceptual and normative legal approach, the study explores how digital transformation influences moral reasoning, social behavior, and national consciousness. The revitalization of Pancasila is implemented through digital literacy programs, ethical education, and civic engagement reflecting the principles of humanity, unity, democracy, and social justice. Grounded in the 1945 Constitution and Law No. 20 of 2003 on the National Education System, the study highlights the importance of integrating civic, moral, and digital ethics education. It also identifies digital threats such as misinformation, cyberbullying, and online radicalization. A multi-sectoral strategy involving government, educators, and digital communities is proposed to strengthen ethical awareness and ideological resilience among youth.

Technological development simultaneously drives economic advancement and generates challenges that often exceed the regulatory capacity of existing legal systems. Grounded in critical theoretical perspectives, the paper rejects the notion of neutral technological progress and emphasizes the role of power structures and institutional choices in shaping technological trajectories and their social consequences. Drawing on an interdisciplinary theoretical framework that integrates the political economy of technological progress, legal theory, and methodological approaches to legal research, this study aims to understand key events of the Digital Revolution, the role of integrating different methodological approaches, and to contribute to a more flexible, responsive, and technologically compatible legal approach aligned with the dynamics of contemporary technological development.

The purpose of the study is to examine the concept of «family» as a legal institution that is characterized by a state-established form (state registration of marriage and legal registration of relations between parents and children) and content (family relations) based on the family values that have been established in society. The methodological basis was formed by general scientific methods and special methods of family law science: dialectical, axiological, analysis and synthesis, formal-logical. With their help, the essential features of the family as a legal phenomenon were revealed. Research results. A family as an institution of modern Russian law is a unity of the state-established form of family relations and the family relations themselves, which constitute its content. In a legal sense, a family is not only a special kind of relationship between its members, but also a form that gives rise to the legal status of a subject as a family member and presumes the existence of family relations. The formal characteristics of a family, such as the state registration of marriage and the established legal relationship between parents and children, cannot be ignored. They are primary, and without them, the family does not exist legally. However, the essential characteristics of the family as a legal institution are also determined by family relations, which are based on family values. Therefore, it is necessary to combine the axiological approach to defining the essential characteristics of the family with the legal approach. The normative consolidation of the system of family values in Russian society, including the concept of the family form, will be one of the factors contributing to the strengthening of the family. The prospects for research suggest further study of the essential characteristics of the family as a legal institution based on the analysis of Russian legislation and materials of law enforcement practice.

The Constitution of the Republic of Indonesia, namely the 1945 Constitution of the Republic of Indonesia, serves as the foundation of the state’s governance, including as the basis for the establishment of state institutions in Indonesia, such as the Constitutional Court of the Republic of Indonesia. Constitutional Court Decision No. 90/PUU-XXI/2023 has attracted significant public interest, as it amends the age requirements for presidential and vice-presidential candidates under the election law. This decision has sparked both positive and negative reactions, as it is considered politically sensitive and closely tied to the dynamics of the 2024 general election, particularly with the emergence of Gibran Rakabuming Raka as a vice-presidential candidate. The research method used to analyze this decision is the normative legal approach, combining conceptual and statutory approaches. The research findings indicate that there are two sides of society: conflict and consensus; without prior consensus, we will not be able to address conflicts. The issue at hand is the violation of the Constitutional Court’s legal principles in Decision number 90/PUU/XXI/2023. Constitutional Court justices are bound by a number of laws and regulations in carrying out their duties, including Law number 48 of 2009, Law number 24 of 2003, as well as the code of ethics and conduct for judges. The phenomenon described in the Constitutional Court Decision Number 90/PUU/XXI/2023 illustrates the conflict that arises when there are differences in interests among various social groups. This serves as evidence of the widespread practice of dynastic politics, where power is inherited within a family or certain groups from generation to generation.

This article introduces the special issue entitled Gendered Violence, the State and the Individual. A Legal and Historical Approach by using a judgment issued by the Inter-American Court of Human Rights in 2021 as example of the ambiguous societal and statal responses to gendered violence. Key feminist theories are outlined in order to expose the several facets and forms of violence and the State's critical role in combating, eradicating, and preventing, but also in perpetrating and perpetuating violence. Altogether, the special issue exposes the ambivalence of the State as protector and oppressor in both the public and private dimensions and aims to advocate for the need of a deeply socio-cultural, global and holistic approach that implements an inclusive and transformative justice.

This study examines the juridical status and evidentiary strength of electronic documents as written evidence in breach of contract disputes within the Indonesian legal system through a normative legal research approach. The analysis employs statute and conceptual approaches to assess the coherence between conventional civil procedural law and contemporary electronic transaction regulations, particularly focusing on the Indonesian Civil Code, HIR/RBg, and the Law on Electronic Information and Transactions along with its implementing regulations. The findings indicate that electronic documents have obtained formal legal recognition as valid evidence; however, their evidentiary weight remains contingent upon authentication, integrity, and reliability standards embedded in electronic systems. The study further identifies normative inconsistencies and interpretative disparities in judicial practice, which create legal uncertainty in evaluating electronic evidence. By applying systematic and teleological interpretation, this research proposes a harmonized legal framework grounded in the principle of functional equivalence to bridge the gap between traditional and digital evidentiary regimes. The study contributes to the development of modern evidentiary law by offering a prescriptive model that integrates legal norms and technological validation mechanisms to ensure legal certainty, fairness, and procedural efficiency

This study aims to examine the culturally based dispute resolution system known as Kankain Karkara, administered by the Mananwir customary institution within the Byak community in Biak, Papua, and to analyze its role in restoring social harmony amid the coexistence of formal and customary legal systems, including in disputes involving migrants. This study uses a legal anthropology approach through participant observation and in-depth interviews with customary authorities and community members, both indigenous residents and migrants. The analysis is grounded in the framework of legal pluralism and the concept of semi-autonomous social fields to examine the relationship between state law and customary law in dispute resolution practices. The novelty of this research lies in the finding that the Kankain Karkara system is not confined to homogeneous customary communities but operates as an inclusive and restorative mechanism capable of integrating migrants as subjects of dispute resolution through reconciliation processes based on local values. In addition, this study identifies the phenomenon of post-adjudication, in which disputes that have been formally decided by state courts continue to be processed through customary forums to achieve social certainty and the restoration of inter-family relations. Findings show that the Kankain Karkara system operates through a tiered and restorative mechanism involving two levels of customary authority: Mananwir Keret, which addresses intra-clan disputes based on reputational–ethical authority, and Mananwir MNU, which functions as a mediator for inter-community and cross-identity disputes through structural–genealogical authority. This study concludes that the coexistence of formal and customary justice systems Biak does not represent a jurisdictional conflict but rather a form of complementary functional differentiation, in which state courts provide procedural certainty, while Kankain Karkara delivers substantive justice through reconciliation and the restoration of social order.