Learning Difficulties Research Articles

LLMs in Education: Evaluation GPT and BERT Models in Student Comment Classification

The incorporation of artificial intelligence in educational contexts has significantly transformed the support provided to students facing learning difficulties, facilitating both the management of their educational process and their emotions. Additionally, online comments play a vital role in understanding student feelings. Analyzing comments on social media platforms can help identify students in vulnerable situations so that timely interventions can be implemented. However, manually analyzing student-generated content on social media platforms is challenging due to the large amount of data and the frequency with which it is posted. In this sense, the recent revolution in artificial intelligence, marked by the implementation of powerful large language models (LLMs), may contribute to the classification of student comments. This study compared the effectiveness of a supervised learning approach using five different LLMs: bert-base-uncased, roberta-base, gpt-4o-mini-2024-07-18, gpt-3.5-turbo-0125, and gpt-neo-125m. The evaluation was carried out after fine-tuning them specifically to classify student comments on social media platforms with anxiety/depression or neutral labels. The results obtained were as follows: gpt-4o-mini-2024-07-18 and gpt-3.5-turbo-0125 obtained 98.93%, roberta-base 98.14%, bert-base-uncased 97.13%, and gpt-neo-125m 96.43%. Therefore, when comparing the effectiveness of these models, it was determined that all LLMs performed well in this classification task.

Games and gamification in inclusive education: Teaching socioemotional skills through games

The article "Games and Gamification in Inclusive Education: Teaching Socioemotional Skills through Games" aims to investigate how games and gamification can support the social and emotional development of students with special educational needs. The objective is to examine how these resources can stimulate essential skills such as empathy, self-control, and cooperation among students. This article is based exclusively on bibliographic research, through books, articles, and existing studies. By analyzing current literature, the research seeks to demonstrate that games are not just tools for entertainment but also an effective means to promote inclusive education and assist in overcoming emotional and social challenges. The study provides practical tips for teachers on how to use these elements to enhance teaching, making it more inclusive and welcoming for all students, especially those with significant learning difficulties. Educators can leverage these elements to make learning more accessible, innovative, and engaging for all students, particularly those facing the greatest challenges related to learning and inclusion, while fostering a more welcoming and motivating school environment.

Neurobehavioral toxicity of cypermethrin in association with oxidative, inflammatory and neurotrophic changes in the hippocampus of rats

ABSTRACT Pyrethroid pesticides can induce neurotoxicity in target and non-target organisms. We examined the effects of sub-chronic exposure to cypermethrin on anxiety-like behaviors, memory function and molecular changes in the hippocampus of rats. Twenty-four male Wistar rats (weighing 200–250 g) were randomly divided into three groups (n = 8) and received orally corn oil, cypermethrin 2 and cypermethrin 4 mg/kg/day, for 30 days. The elevated plus maze (EPM), open field maze (OFM) and novel object recognition memory (NORM) tests were conducted. At the end, brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), glycogen synthase kinase-3 β (GSK-3β), cholinesterase activity, oxidative stress markers and inflammatory mediators were evaluated in the hippocampus. The results of OFM and EPM indicated higher level of anxiety and motor activity alterations in the cypermethrin treated rats. NORM test revealed impairment of cognitive memory and decreased discrimination ratio in cypermethrin treated rats. Cypermethrin decreased BDNF and increased GSK-3β, oxidative stress and mRNA expression of IL-1β and TNF-α and NF-κB in the hippocampus. The activity of cholinesterase enzyme was not changed. Cypermethrin can impair learning and memory along with provoking oxidative stress and inflammation, and dysregulation of BDNF and GSK-3β pathway may be involved in neurocognitive and neurobehavioral disorders due to long-time exposures.

The Effect of a Mathematics Learning Disability Program Offered Face to Face with Interactive Online Learning from Smart Learning Environments on Teachers’ Knowledge and Self-Efficacy Levels

This study examines the effectiveness of in-service training programs aimed at enhancing teachers’ knowledge and self-efficacy in the context of learning disabilities (LD) in mathematics. Despite the increasing use of both interactive online learning and face-to-face training methods in professional development, limited research has compared their relative effectiveness in this specific field. Furthermore, existing studies have not adequately addressed whether improvements in teachers’ knowledge and self-efficacy are sustained over time. To address this gap, the present study employed a quasi-experimental design with two experimental groups. The sample consists of 80 classroom teachers, with 40 participants in the interactive online learning education group and 40 in the face-to-face education group. The training program consists of 16 h of instruction over four weeks. Data were collected using a demographic questionnaire and the Mathematics Learning Difficulty Area Teacher Self-Efficacy Scale, and statistical analyses were conducted. The findings indicate that, prior to the intervention, teachers in the interactive online learning education group exhibited significantly higher levels of knowledge and self-efficacy. However, the post-intervention results revealed no statistically significant differences between the two groups. Cohen’s d analysis indicated a moderate effect size for interactive online learning education before the intervention, which diminished to a small effect size afterward. This study validates the efficiency of interactive online learning from smart learning environments for in-service training programs aimed at enhancing teachers’ knowledge and self-efficacy about learning disabilities in mathematics. These results suggest that both training modalities effectively improve teachers’ knowledge and self-efficacy, but neither demonstrate a clear long-term advantage. This study underscores the need for further research to determine optimal strategies for sustaining professional development in this domain.

Perceive-IR: Learning to Perceive Degradation Better for All-in-One Image Restoration.

Existing All-in-One image restoration methods often fail to simultaneously perceive degradation types and severity levels, overlooking the importance of fine-grained quality perception. Moreover, these methods often utilize highly customized backbones, which hinder their adaptability and integration into more advanced restoration networks. To address these limitations, we propose Perceive-IR, a novel backbone-agnostic All-in-One image restoration framework designed for fine-grained quality control across various degradation types and severity levels. Its modular structure allows core components to function independently of specific backbones, enabling seamless integration into advanced restoration models without significant modifications. Specifically, Perceive-IR operates in two key stages: (1) multi-level quality-driven prompt learning stage, where a fine-grained quality perceiver is meticulously trained to discern threetier quality levels by optimizing the alignment between prompts and images within the CLIP perception space. This stage ensures a nuanced understanding of image quality, laying the groundwork for subsequent restoration; (2) restoration stage, where the quality perceiver is seamlessly integrated with a difficulty-adaptive perceptual loss, forming a quality-aware learning strategy. This strategy not only dynamically differentiates sample learning difficulty but also achieves fine-grained quality control by driving the restored image toward the ground truth while simultaneously pulling it away from both low- and medium-quality samples. Furthermore, Perceive-IR incorporates a Semantic Guidance Module (SGM) and Compact Feature Extraction (CFE). The SGM leverages semantic information from pre-trained vision models to provide high-level contextual guidance, while the CFE focuses on extracting degradation-specific features, ensuring accurate handling of diverse image degradations. Extensive experiments demonstrate that Perceive-IR not only surpasses state-of-the-art methods but also generalizes reliably to zero-shot realworld and unknown degraded scenes, while adapting seamlessly to different backbone networks. This versatility underscores the framework's robustness and backbone-agnostic design.

Dificuldades de aprendizagem na leitura nas séries iniciais e estratégias de intervenção: Análise realizada em uma turma do 4º Ano de uma Escola Pública no Município de Vitória de Santo Antão- PE

Nowadays, it is quite common to talk about learning difficulties in the early years, as this topic has been discussed in several plenary sessions. However, the gaps are becoming increasingly evident, especially in the learning of students in public schools, where the system also allows students to move up a class due to several factors, even without the conditions to do so. Classes are more heterogeneous, and this includes several diagnoses, which are often not restricted to mental problems or disorders, but include: lack of working conditions, physical structure of the school, poor training of professionals in the area, and the cognitive and emotional difficulties of children. When we talk about children with diagnoses, today we are talking about a considerable number per class. According to Santos (2015), “Learning difficulties in reading are a problem that affects many students and has manifested itself in every educational environment. When these difficulties are not identified by educators, they become a burden on the child's school life. Therefore, when we talk about fundamental principles for the development of a child's learning, we are talking directly about reading, since it is from this that all the others will be developed. The research, analysis and intervention were carried out in this specific class, because it already had a history of several times due to its deficiency in many activities. Even though it was a class that attended school regularly, there was no significant progress on the part of the majority of students. However, students who needed specialized individual assistance in partnership with the AEE were identified and the others were encouraged to progress in different ways, always confirming everyone's commitment. In addition to intervening, it was essential to listen, to understand why the process was not moving forward, and from this, strategies for intervention were outlined. This work was carried out in a public school in the city of Vitória de Santo Antão-PE, in a 4th grade class, composed of 35 students, where they were monitored over a period of 2 months for data collection and monitoring in activities to overcome learning difficulties in reading and writing and progress in all subjects that had been extending over the years.

Evaluating Challenges in Learning English with the WASPAS Approach

Learning English as a second language presents various challenges for learners. Pronunciation and grammar can be difficult due to differences from their native language. Vocabulary acquisition requires time and practice, while idioms and slang add complexity. Listening and speaking skills can be intimidating, especially in fast-paced conversations. Writing in English demands proper sentence structure and coherence. Additionally, cultural differences may impact understanding and communication. Limited exposure to English-speaking environments and a lack of confidence can further hinder progress. Despite these challenges, consistent practice, immersive learning, and effective teaching methods can help learners overcome difficulties and achieve fluency. The significance of researching challenges in learning English as a second language lies in improving language acquisition methods and enhancing educational strategies. Understanding these challenges helps educators develop more effective teaching approaches, addressing issues such as pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, and cultural differences. It also aids policymakers in designing supportive language programs for learners. Furthermore, identifying barriers like anxiety, lack of exposure, and limited resources can lead to targeted interventions that boost learners’ confidence and proficiency. This research contributes to linguistic, cognitive, and social development, ensuring better communication skills and broader opportunities for individuals in academic, professional, and global contexts. The methodology for studying challenges in learning English as a second language involves a mixed-methods approach, combining qualitative and quantitative research. Surveys and questionnaires can be used to collect data from learners about difficulties in pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, and communication. Interviews and focus groups help gather in-depth insights into personal learning experiences. Observational studies in classrooms assess teaching methods and learner engagement. Additionally, language proficiency tests measure progress and identify specific problem areas. Data analysis involves identifying common trends and patterns in learning difficulties. This approach helps develop effective strategies to overcome challenges and improve English language acquisition. Alternative: Pronunciation Issues, Grammar Complexity, Vocabulary Retention, Listening Comprehension, Writing Skills, Understanding Idioms & Slang, Cultural Context & Expression, Fear of Making Mistakes. Evaluation preference: Difficulty Level, Frequency, Impact on Learning, Overcoming Difficulty, Learner Confidence, Need for External Support. Fear of Making Mistakes is getting top of the table and Writing Skills is getting bottom of the table.

On the relationship between psychological well-being and learning motivation in primary school children

The article presents data on psychological well-being of primary school children with different types of learning motivation. Positive connections of psychological well-being and components of its structure with internal motivation of learning, negative connections – with external motivation of learning are established. It is shown that cognitive motivation, self-development motivation, awareness of the significance of learning activity for themselves, but at the same time – orientation to high academic performance are characteristic for junior schoolchildren with a high level of psychological well-being. At a low level of psychological well-being, children have a pronounced external motivation of learning, reflecting primarily the teacher's requirements, subjective perception of learning difficulties, negative attitude to learning, preschool-type motivation with its hedonistic orientation.

The Individual and Combined Effects of Prenatal Micronutrient Supplementations on Neurobehavioral Developmental Disorders in Preschool Children

Background: Neurobehavioral developmental disorders significantly affect children’s future well-being and contribute to the global disease burden. While prenatal micronutrient supplementation is crucial for fetal neural development, their individual and combined effects on subsequent neurobehavioral outcomes in childhood remain poorly understood. This study aimed to examine the individual and combined effects of prenatal micronutrient supplementation on neurobehavioral developmental disorders in preschool children, and to explore their effects across specific developmental domains. Methods: 15,636 mother-child dyads were recruited from the 2022 children’s survey in Shenzhen, China. Mothers provided information on prenatal supplementation of calcium, folic acid, iron, and multivitamins. Five domains of children’s neurobehavioral functioning were assessed using the Ages and Stages Questionnaire-Third Edition (communication, gross motor, fine motor, problem-solving, and personal-social status). Logistic regression models were used to estimate the effect of micronutrient supplementations on NDDs across crude, adjusted, and full-inclusion models. Combined effects were assessed by multiplicative and additive interactions calculated from crossover analysis. Results: 11.7% of preschool children were identified as at risk for neurobehavioral developmental disorders, with the highest prevalence in the gross motor domain. Prenatal multivitamin supplementation showed a protective effect against neurobehavioral developmental disorders (OR = 0.73, 95% CI = 0.66–0.81). Interaction analysis revealed that the combination of iron and multivitamins further enhanced this protection, with both multiplicative (IOR = 1.26, 95% CI = 1.02–1.57) and additive interactions (RERI = 0.18, 95% CI = 0.02–0.35). The problem-solving domain consistently showed the greatest benefit from the supplementation of these micronutrients individually and in combination. Conclusions: Prenatal multivitamin supplementation reduces the risk of neurobehavioral developmental disorders, especially when combined with iron supplementation. These findings highlight the potential benefits of prenatal co-supplementation strategies to improve neurobehavioral outcomes in offspring. Further studies are recommended to confirm these findings and explore underlying mechanisms.

3E Pedagogy through XR

Formal education today is out of sync with how we now understand learning. Schools still use old structures from the 19th century and rely on teaching methods from the 20th century that see thinking as separate from the body and environment (Abrahamson, 2014). However, modern neuroscience and newer theories—like 4E and 3E cognition—offer a different view. These ideas say that thinking is shaped by the body, actions, and surroundings (Parada et al., 2024). This new perspective supports more inclusive teaching methods, especially when combined with immersive technologies that help students with Special Educational Needs (SEN) (Videla et al., 2025). This paper presents a new inclusive teaching framework based on 3E cognition and a method called SpEED (Special Education and Embodied Design) (Tancredi et al., 2021). The research follows a qualitative, constructivist approach influenced by post-cognitive views and cognitive anthropology (Creswell, 2017). It uses multiple case studies with an ethnographic focus. The goal was to explore teaching practices in Chile that support learning through doing, across physical, technological, and cultural settings. Data were collected through observations, field notes, photos, and videos to show how technology and teaching methods created inclusive learning experiences in primary and secondary schools. One example involved 12 high school students in Chile with specific learning difficulties (SLD). Five students with language challenges worked on reading comprehension using augmented reality (AR) and 3D scenes. They used tools like CoSpaces and Merge Cube to mix audio, group reading, and visual storytelling. This helped them understand the text better and learn through hands-on, interactive experiences. At the same time, seven students with math difficulties used virtual reality (VR) headsets and Gravity Sketch to explore geometry. They moved from 2D problems to paper models, then to virtual 3D shapes. This helped them understand concepts better and improve focus and spatial thinking. The findings show that immersive technologies like AR and VR, when used with active teaching methods and environmental support, can change traditional classrooms into more dynamic learning spaces. These tools increased student interest, understanding, and motivation, while adapting to each learner’s needs. The study suggests that XR technologies don’t just improve teaching—they reshape the learning environment to be more inclusive and responsive. By using AR/VR and culturally meaningful apps, this framework goes beyond Universal Design for Learning (UDL) by focusing on multimodal perception, embodied learning, and context-aware design. This work adds to the discussion on inclusive education by offering real-life strategies that can be used more widely. In short, the study shows that immersive and ecologically grounded education can support fairness and cognitive justice in today’s digital world. It reimagines classrooms as active partners in learning, where the brain, body, and environment work together, creating new paths for inclusive and embodied teaching (Macrine and Fugate, 2022).

Implikasi Metode PBL Dalam Peningkatan Hasil Belajar Pendidikan Agama Katolik di SMP Negeri 1 Biatan

This study addresses learning challenges, including student learning difficulties and the ineffective use of lecture-based methods, which result in boredom, disengagement, and low student participation. These issues contribute to poor learning outcomes and low completion rates. The aim of this study is to improve student independence and enhance both average scores and the percentage of learning completion by implementing the Problem Based Learning (PBL) model. This aligns with the principles of the flexible Independent Curriculum, which encourages teachers to adopt student-centered learning approaches that enhance outcomes. The study employed a descriptive-qualitative method, structured in two cycles consisting of planning, implementation, evaluation, and reflection. The research involved eight 8th-grade students at SMPN 1 Biatan during the 2024/2025 academic year. The study focused on developing the "independent" dimension of the Pancasila Student Profile (P3), with data collected through behavioral observations and test results at the end of each cycle. Findings showed significant improvements in student independence, with scores increasing from 53 in cycle 1 to 87 in cycle 2. Cognitive achievement levels also improved: the “advanced” category rose from 0% to 63%, “proficient” increased from 25% to 37.5%, while the “feasible” and “newly developing” categories dropped from 37.5% each to 0%. These results suggest that the PBL model positively impacts both character development and academic performance in the context of Catholic religious education, particularly in the topic of the Sacrament of Healing.

Analisis Kesulitan Belajar Peserta Didik Kelas 5 pada Mata Pelajaran PAI di SDN Candi Burung 2 Pamekasan

The aim of this research is to determine the learning difficulties of grade 5 students in PAI subjects at SDN Candi Burung 2 Pamekasan. This paper uses a qualitative method with a descriptive type. The subjects of this research were 5th grade students at SDN Candi Burung 2 Pamekasan. Meanwhile, the results of this research can be concluded that the forms of learning difficulties faced by grade 5 students in PAI subjects at SDN Candi Burung 2 Pamekasan include: difficulty focusing when learning takes place and difficulty absorbing learning material. Learning difficulties are caused by two factors, namely internal and external. Internal factors include: low interest in learning and intelligence of participants. Meanwhile, external factors include lack of parental guidance. The efforts made by PAI teachers to overcome these learning difficulties are by implementing learning innovations and communicating students' learning progress to their parents.

“A Holistic INLM-Based Psychological Case Study of Heer Shah’s: Integrated Intervention for Developmental Delays and Specific Learning Difficulties” By Ms. Radha Navnit Jajal & Ms. Badri Nirav Patel

This case study documents the neuropsychological evaluation, holistic formulation, and intervention process of Heer Shah, a 5.5-year-old girl with developmental and specific learning delays. Heer had problems with auditory sequencing, expressive language, fine motor skills, and spatial abilities, leading to academic and emotional frustrations. Applying a multi-dimensional assessment strategy based on the Integrated Neuropsychological Learning Model (INLM), interventions comprised cognitive remediation, sensory-motor therapies, emotional regulation techniques, and integrative naturopathic care. Significant gains were noted following structured intervention.

A Case-control Analysis of Significant Mental Health Risk Factors Among Children in Conflict with the Law in Mumbai, India

Background: There is a significant body of evidence on the various psychosocial and psychiatric correlates of juvenile offending. However, few Indian studies shed light on which mental health correlates are the most concerning compared to the general population. This study examined several risk factors for juvenile offending including attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, aggression, self-esteem, non-suicidal self-injury, relations with family, childhood trauma, learning difficulties, and substance use in comparison with age, sex, and socioeconomic-status-matched community-based controls. Method: The study was conducted at a juvenile detention center and government-run school in Mumbai, India. Participants aged 13-17 years ( n = 158, 79 each in case and control groups) were evaluated using a structured, self-reported questionnaire consisting of the Conners-3-self-report (short form), Rosenberg self-esteem scale (RSES), and questions on self-harm, substance use, and childhood physical and sexual abuse. Data were analyzed using SPSS version 20.0. Results: Adolescent offenders reported significantly higher rates of non-suicidal self-injury (58.2% compared to 12.6% in the control group; P < .001), substance use (57.0% compared to 10.1%; P < .001), childhood physical abuse (48.1% compared to 16.5%; P < .001) and learning difficulties (51.9% compared to 26.6%; P = .002) and scored lower on the RSES ( P < .001). Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder ( P = .184) and aggression ( P = .164) were not statistically significant. On regression analyses, self-esteem (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] = 0.73; P < .001), non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI) (aOR = 4.07; P = .017), and substance use (aOR = 3.88; P = .022) emerged as significant predictors of juvenile offending. Conclusion: Further research, screening, and targeted interventions are needed to mitigate adverse psychiatric and psychosocial outcomes among adolescent offenders.

Prevalence of Students with Learning Difficulties in Basic Arithmetic Operations in the Subject of Mathematics at the Elementary Level in Saudi Arabia

This study investigates the prevalence of learning difficulty in simple arithmetic operations among elementary-level Saudi Arabian students. Through a quantitative descriptive study, 320 responses were collected through simple random sampling from randomly selected teachers from state and private schools. A validated and reliable self-constructed questionnaire provided information regarding students' difficulty in executing simple arithmetic operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. The findings showed that the rate of arithmetic problems was very high and was not favorable for the learning outcomes and moods of the students. The findings also showed that qualifications, experience in years, and location had a significant effect on the perceptions of the learning problem by the teachers. The research is important in highlighting awareness on some interventions like specialist teacher training, differentiated instruction, and fair allocation of resources, especially in rural settings. The study has implications for teachers, policymakers, and curriculum developers as they strive to align Saudi Arabia's educational practice with the goals of Saudi Arabia's Vision 2030. Finally, it helps enhance the teaching of mathematics and inclusive learning environments that support the diverse needs of elementary students.

Supporting Mathematics Vocabulary Development for Students With Learning Difficulties: An Instructional Routine

Mathematics vocabulary plays a crucial role in students’ mathematics learning. However, students, particularly those with learning disabilities (LDs), encounter challenges in understanding and grasping mathematical terms. This challenge becomes more evident as students progress into the elementary and secondary grades, where mathematics vocabulary becomes more specific and complex. To address this issue, we provide an instructional routine for educators to teach students mathematics vocabulary. The routine contains three phases: (a) select key vocabulary, (b) mathematics vocabulary grid instruction, and (c) review vocabulary. We present various activities to consider for each phase, along with practical suggestions for educators to implement the routine efficiently for students with LD.

DYSCALCULIA: THE HIDDEN BARRIER OF MATHEMATICS TEACHERS' AWARENESS, EXPERIENCES AND SUGGESTIONS

Dyscalculia is a learning disorder that affects students' ability to understand mathematical concepts and acquire mathematical skills. This study investigates elementary mathematics teachers' awareness, experiences, and suggestions regarding dyscalculia. The research employed a phenomenology design with purposive sampling, focusing on elementary mathematics teachers as participants. The researchers conducted online semi-structured interviews with 15 elementary mathematics teachers from different schools. The study explored teachers' knowledge of dyscalculia, their exposure to the concept during undergraduate education, and strategies for supporting students with dyscalculia. Data analysis was performed using content analysis methods, following validity and reliability strategies that included credibility, transferability, consistency, and confirmability criteria. The findings revealed that while most teachers possessed general knowledge about dyscalculia, they struggled to identify and support students diagnosed with the condition in their classrooms. The study concluded with recommendations for educational policies to improve academic outcomes for students with dyscalculia.

Autism and intellectual disability due to a novel gain-of-function mutation in UBE3A.

The loss of maternal UBE3A causes Angelman syndrome whereas its duplication is associated with a heterogeneous neurodevelopmental disorder. Here, we describe two affected brothers who possess a novel UBE3AL734S variant that is not present in two neurotypical siblings. The UBE3AL734S variant was confirmed to be maternally inherited, and the affected individuals exhibited early global developmental delay, ongoing learning difficulties, and autistic features. Their phenotypes were inconsistent with Angelman syndrome. Biochemical characterization showed the UBE3AL734S variant causes a dramatic increase in the activity of the UBE3A enzyme, suggesting that a gain in UBE3A activity is the driver of neurodevelopmental disease. Our observations document an emerging class of neurodevelopmental disorders caused by gain-of-function mutations in UBE3A.

Non-cognitive predictors of self-regulated learning skills in university students with specific learning disorders

ABSTRACT Students with Specific Learning Disabilities (SLD) face ongoing academic challenges that persist into higher education. However, up to date, few studies have focused in assessing the non-cognitive predictors of self-regulated learning (SRL) skills, specifically considering university students with SLD. This cross-sectional correlational study examined how motivational factors (academic self-efficacy and learning goals), academic anxiety, and academic resilience contribute to SRL skills. The AMOS questionnaire was used to assess these variables in a sample of 88 university students with SLD in Italy. Participants were recruited during the renewal process of their diagnostic assessments. Hierarchical regression revealed that motivational factors were the strongest predictors of SRL skills. While academic anxiety did not show a significant main effect, its interaction with gender emerged, indicating that anxiety has a more pronounced negative relationship with SRL skills in female students. These findings underscore the importance of interventions that foster positive motivational factors and address academic anxiety, particularly for women, to support SRL skills in higher education students with SLD.

Predicting Adolescent Arithmetic and Reading Dysfluency

The long-term negative consequences of learning difficulties have been acknowledged. Nonetheless, research is still scarce regarding the prediction of adolescent difficulties in reading and arithmetic skills. The present study examines at which age phase and with what kind of constellation of parent- and child-related factors can adolescent difficulties in arithmetic and/or reading fluency be successfully predicted. A sample of Finnish children (N = 941) was followed from the onset of kindergarten (at age 6) through adolescence (ages 13–16). Children’s cognitive skills were assessed in kindergarten, and arithmetic and reading fluency were examined in Grades 2, 4, 6, 7, and 9. Parents’ self-report data were collected on their own learning difficulties and educational level. Scoring below the 16th percentile in both Grades 7 and 9 was set as the criterion for dysfluency either in reading (n = 87, 9.2%) or arithmetic (n = 84, 8.9%). Adolescent dysfluency in both domains was moderately predicted by parental measures and kindergarten cognitive skills. Although adding school-age fluency measures clearly increased both the predictability and specificity of models up to Grade 4 for both skills, knowledge of letters’ names, counting, and visuospatial skills remained unique predictors of dysfluency in adolescence.