Launch Services Research Articles

Space debris mitigation strategies and practices in geosynchronous transfer orbits

Missions to geosynchronous orbits remain one of the most important elements of space launch traffic, accounting for 40% of all missions to Earth orbit and beyond during the four-year period 2000–2003. The vast majority of these missions leave one or more objects in geosynchronous transfer orbits (GTOs), contributing on a short-term or long-term basis to the space debris population. National and international space debris mitigation guidelines seek to curtail the accumulation of debris in orbits which penetrate the regions of low Earth orbit and of geosynchronous orbit. The orbital lifetime of objects in GTO can be greatly influenced by the initial values of perigee, inclination, and right ascension of the orbital plane, leading to orbital lifetimes of from less than one month to more than 100 years. An examination of the characteristic GTOs employed by launch vehicles from around the world has been conducted. The consequences of using perigees above 300 km and super-synchronous apogees, typically above 40,000 km, have been identified. In addition, the differences in orbital behavior of launch vehicle stages and mission-related debris in GTOs have been investigated. Greater coordination and cooperation between space launch service providers and spacecraft designers and owners could significantly improve overall compliance with guidelines to mitigate the accumulation of debris in Earth orbit.

The New Aerospace Diplomacy: Reconstructing Post-Cold War US-Russian Economic Relations

Post-Cold War U.S.-Russian diplomacy reveals the increased importance of new diplomatic actors and processes, whilst underscoring the continued key role of state-state negotiation in reconstructing the bilateral relationship between the United States and post-Soviet Russia. The Clinton administration and Yeltsin government negotiated measures to promote political stability, democratization, and conversion to a neoliberal market economy in Russia, a centrepiece of which was the integration of Russia’s globally competitive aerospace sector into the global production chain. Establishing the Gore-Chernomyrdin Commission, a top-level binational economic and technology policy committee, and signing a bilateral trade liberalization treaty on commercial satellite launch services paved the way for public-public and public-private bilateral space cooperation, and for major private joint ventures between US and Russian aerospace firms.

The ROCKOT launch vehicle—the competitive launch solution for small Earth observation satellites into low Earth orbits

Eurockot is the German–Russian joint venture company providing low earth orbit (LEO) launch services with the Russian ROCKOT launch vehicle. ROCKOT is a 3 stage liquid fuelled launch vehicle, which can place payloads of up to 1950 kg into LEO and has the capability to serve sun-synchronous, near polar and highly inclined orbits from its launch site at Plesetsk Cosmodrome in northern Russia. The purpose of the paper is to describe the suitability of ROCKOT specifically for LEO earth observation and scientific missions. The paper provides an overview of Eurockot's recent commercial launch experience and future customers. In particular, it describes in some detail the recent launch campaigns and missions undertaken to satisfy the particular customer needs. After successful launches of GRACE and IRIDIUM satellites in 2002, five further contracts have been concluded on the ROCKOT launch vehicle, three of which are for launches of earth observation systems.

Commercial Space Launch Services Contracts in France and the United States of America

The article focuses on the characteristics, structures, and main clauses of the commercial space launch contracts as used in France and the United States, stressing their similarities in structure, legal treatment, and consequences.

Parametric Studies of the Whole Spacecraft Vibration Isolation

Introduction I N space industries two important challenges are the minimum structural mass of a spacecraft and the maximum market of a launchvehicle.A major factor,which determineswhether these targets can be reachedor not, is the dynamic environment that a launch vehicle can provide to its payloads.The launch stage is the most severe dynamic environment that a spacecraft will experience during its normalmission life. To survive the launchstage, the strengthof a spacecraft structurehas to be sufŽ ciently high, and this is translated into some extra mass that will be useless in the orbiter for a normal mission.As there are more andmore launch service providersin the world, spacecraft owners now have more choices than ever before. From such aspects as reliability and economics, the dynamic environment is a major factor considered in choosing a launch vehicle. Because the concept was proposed, the whole spacecraft vibration isolation (WSVI) technologyhas been successfullyapplied for many times.1;2 The purpose of theWSVI is to improve the dynamic environment signiŽ cantly by adding vibration isolators or damping treatment to the payload adaptor Ž tting (PAF). Currently, theWSVI is considered as the most effective and economic approach for improvingthe dynamicenvironment.A direct beneŽ t of theWSVI is to enable a spacecraft,qualiŽ ed for being launchedwith a launchvehicle, to  y using another launchvehicle.A major differencebetween two differentlaunchvehiclesusually is theirdynamicenvironments. The theory and technologyof vibration isolation have been studied formanyyears,and the vibrationisolationhas becomea standard

The commercial development of space: is an international regulatory framework needed?

The commercial space sector to date has failed to develop comprehensive regulations—“rules of the road”—for its international activities. Within the next 5 years, conflicts with respect to international trade in satellite sales and launch services could emerge, highlighting the need for such a regulatory framework. If the commercial space sector is to continue to develop, it is important to begin discussions now, before these conflicts become significant, on the elements of an appropriate international regulatory framework. The existing framework for space activities was developed when government, not commercial, space activities were dominant, or was adapted from regulations in other sectors such as terrestrial telecommunications.

First Galileo satellite contracts

Surrey Space Technology UK, a Surrey University spinoff has secured a contract worth €27.9m to build one of two experimental Galileo satellites for in_orbit validation. Its Galileo 400kg test satellite, will transmit Galileo signals from one of the orbits to be used by the constellation. It will be launched during 2005 to secure the frequencies reserved for the Galileo system with the International Telecommunications Union. Signals have to be sent by June 2006 to retain the priority allocation. The University of Surrey company, SSTL designs, constructs, tests, launches and operates small and low_cost satellites for international customers. SSTL has built more than 16 micro satellites for USAF, MoD France /Alcatel, CNES/MMS, Korea, Portugal, Thailand, Malaysia, Chile and USA/SatelLife. SSTL has also established a small satellite launch service in collaboration with ISC Kosmotras (Moscow) using de_militarised SS18 ICBMs, converted into the Dnepr small launcher, to provide low cost. regular access to space for microsats. This is a short news story only. Visit www.three-fives.com for the latest advanced semiconductor industry news.

Cooperative research in microgravity sciences during the French manned MIR missions

During the past ten years the French laboratories working in the field of fluids and material sciences had access to regular, long-lasting manned missions onboard the Russian MIR Space Station. Beyond the French scientific program that was performed with the ALICE apparatus, a cooperative research program was developed with DLR, NASA and RSA. This cooperation was based on bartered agreements that included the joint utilization of the instruments onboard the MIR station (ALICE, TITUS furnace from DLR, vibration device from RKK Energia) and the funding of dedicated cartridges (DLR) or thermostats (DLR and NASA), as well as launch services (NASA) by the Cooperating Agencies. We present a review of this program with a particular emphasis on its scientific results and on the progress that has been achieved in science and applications. They covered a large field of condensed matter physics, from material sciences to near-critical and off-critical phase separation kinetics and near critical fluid hydrodynamics (thermoacoustic heat transport and vibrational convection). The high microgravity relevance of all these investigations naturally led to outstanding results that was published in the world's best scientific journals. The analysis of the latest experiments performed during the PEGASUS mission shows they will not be an exception to that evaluation. Off-critical phase separation with NASA, pressure-driven piston effect and equiaxed solidification with DLR, heat transport under calibrated vibrations with RKK Energia, all will be presented. The conclusion will stress the international character of this microgravity research program, the conditions of its success and what can be gained from it in the perspective of the space station utilization.

The Rockot launch system—the commercial solution for low-cost planetary missions

EUROCKOT Launch Services GmbH was founded by DaimlerChrysler Aerospace of Germany and Khrunichev State Research and Production Space Center of Russia to offer worldwide cost-effective launch services on the flight proven and reliable Rockot launch system. Rockot can launch satellites weighting up to 1850 kg into low earth orbits (LEO) from around 50° up to high inclinations (e.g. SSO). The paper describes the design, the capabilities and the user interfaces of the Rockot launch vehicle which is based on the former Russian SS-19 strategic missile. The third stage “Breeze” has been newly developed and has multiple ignition capability. The extremely high flexibility of both the payload accommodation and the launch systems allows fast service, i.e. a mission integration period of 18 months from contract signature and a nominal launch campaign which lasts 19 working days. The launch site in Plesetsk has been modernised and adapted to fulfil all requirements of Western customers. The modifications will be verified by a launch of two satellite simulators in the second quarter of 2000. The first commercial launch (two IRIDIUM satellites) is foreseen for the third quarter of 2000. EUROCKOT is also in a position to offer high altitude orbits. In particular for payloads with a mass of up to approximately 320 kg even earth escape/planetary mission with reliable competitive and flight qualified systems can be offered by adding a solid boost stage to the Rockot launcher in co-operation with the major provider of these stages. In this paper the performance envelope, interfaces and potential design solutions will be discussed.

Kistler reusable vehicle facility design and operational approach

Kistler Aerospace Corporation is designing and developing the K-1, the world's first fully reusable aerospace vehicle to deliver satellites into orbit. The K-1 vehicle test program will be conducted in Woomera, Australia, with commercial operations scheduled to begin shortly afterwards. Both stages of the K-1 will return to the launch site utilizing parachutes and airbags for a soft landing within 24 h after launch. The turnaround flow of the two stages will cycle from landing site to a maintenance/refurbishment facility and through the next launch in only 9 days. Payload processing will occur in a separate facility in parallel with recovery and refurbishment operations. The vehicle design and on-board checkout capability of the avionics system eliminates the need for an abundance of ground checkout equipment. Payload integration, vehicle assembly, and K-1 transport to the launch pad will be performed horizontally, simplifying processing and reducing infrastructure requirements. This simple, innovative, and cost-effective approach will allow Kistler to offer its customers flexible, low-cost, and on-demand launch services.

Highly reusable space transportation: Advanced concepts and the opening of the space frontier

Revolutionary changes in how cargo and people are transported into space are needed to enable the affordable development and exploration of space in the 21st century. Diverse efforts to achieve major, but incremental Earth-to-orbit (ETO) improvements in the relatively near term have been undertaken in recent years in the US, including the Department of Defense evolved expendable launch vehicle system development project. The NASA-industry reusable launch vehicle (RLV) program is addressing this challenge for the mid-term. The RLV program will validate the technology to enable industry to develop all-rocket reusable launch systems that can deliver payloads from the current Civil Needs Data Base in the 20,000–40,000 pounds class and smaller to low Earth orbit (LEO) at costs of approximately $1000–$2000 per pound. This represents a factor of 5 (or more) reduction below existing launch services. This “next generation” improvement in launch capability is a vital element of the US National Space Transportation policy for current and planned government and commercial payloads. The longer-term challenge is also being addressed. During 1995–1997, NASA conducted the highly reusable space transportation (HRST) study project to address the longer-term challenge: how to achieve an additional factor of 10 reduction in launch costs—to approximately $100–$200 per payload pound to LEO—thus enabling a revolutionary expansion of space activity and enterprise. The HRST study has identified a “grand strategy” for achieving these cost goals, based on pursuing a revolutionary advance in main propulsion architectures and technology for ETO systems to enable a dramatic improvements in subsystem operability. The HRST study has examined diverse approaches, including combination propulsion systems, combined cycle propulsion, launch assist systems, and revolutionary rocket propulsion. An integrated assessment has been conducted, including both the concepts defined as part of the study as well as past concepts. This assessment suggests that the cost goals of HRST are achievable within the next 10–20 years if appropriate technology investments are pursued. This paper provides a summary report on the results and findings of the HRST study project.

Global commercial space industry indicators and trends

This paper will provide a description of the current size and production levels of space-related industries, based on a global survey of firms undertaken by Futron Corporation and the Satellite Industry Association. In addition, the paper provides a forecast of future space activity by commercial and government entities, focusing on commercial growth. The industry indicators included in the paper include revenue, employment, and production level associated with satellite manufacturing, launch services, and ground systems and revenue and employment associated with different types of satellite services. These data are based on a survey of more than 600 firms worldwide and represent primary research of a type not available from any other source. The forecast presented in the paper will be based on a proprietary Futron methodology that considers both underlying demand for satellite telecommunication services, by country or region, and the proposed supply of satellites currently known. The analysis assesses whether proposed satellite systems are likely, based on financing, satellite manufacturing and launch services contract status, and track record of the operator. The analysis then compares projected demand to likely supply, identifies over- or under-supply by region and application, and predicts the number of satellites that will be required to meet demand.

The US–Europe technology gap in space transportation: the view from the USA

This paper examines the debate within the USA over how to meet the perceived competition from the successful European Ariane launcher and the loss of US market share for space launch services that it represented. In particular, it explores the origins of the 1983 Reagan Administration policy to turn over expendable launch vehicle production and operation to private industry. The Administration's other decisions to: (1) use the Space Shuttle to fly all government payloads, and (2) allow NASA to market Space Shuttle services commercially, conflicted with this commercialization policy. These policies effectively caused US industry to delay entry into the international competition for launch services until after the loss of the Space Shuttle Challenger in January 1986.

The European launcher industry: The context of the restructuring process

The European launcher industry has built a long story of successes with the Ariane 4 launcher which entered commercial service in 1988: 97 flights, with a success rate of 97% and an on going series of 55 successive flights without failure. The quality of the services offered by this launcher (accuracy, environment, reliability, planning flexibility) has allowed Arianespace to occupy the leading position for the commercial market of GEO launch services, with about a 50% share.

Rockot: the proven, competitive launch system for small satellites

The ROCKOT launcher, its performance and actual status of the commercial program is described. ROCKOT can launch satellites weighing up to 1850 kg into polar, sun synchronous (SSO) or other low earth orbits (LEO). The ROCKOT launch vehicle is based on the former Russian SS-19 strategic missile. The first and second stages are inherited from the SS19, the third stage BREEZE has been newly developed and is characterised by multiple ignition capability. The extremely high flexibility of both the payload accommodation and the launch systems allows the fast service: a nominal launch campaign lasts 19 working days and consists of the operations regarding the launch vehicle, the spacecraft and combined system launch vehicle/spacecraft. The high degree of maturity of the launch vehicle and the launch systems contribute to the competitively fair price level. The ROCKOT launch system is flight proven and marketed by EUROCKOT. EUROCKOT Launch Services GmbH has been founded by DaimlerChrysler Aerospace of Germany and Khrunishev State Research and Production Space Centre of Russia KSRC to offer world-wide cost effective launch services on the ROCKOT launch system. ROCKOT will perform two flights in 1999 and updated information on the campaigns is contained in the paper.

INTELSAT's launch services requirements

The present article briefly summarizes INTELSAT's history with respect to launch vehicles and services, and INTELSAT's current on-going launch services programs. It also summarizes INTELSAT's near term (next 5 years) plans to replace spacecraft currently in the INTELSAT fleet, and plans and studies for additional spacecraft to expand certain INTELSAT services. How are the launch services requirements going to evolve? What are the desirable integration methods? In the future, should additional spacecraft support services and facilities be needed at the launch sites?

STARSEM current and future activity

The launch services industry is facing a tremendous evolution caused by the changes brought to the design of the satellites. The launch industry must cope with the ‘smaller, faster, better’ era. This context was the main reason for the creation of the European-Russian joint venture STARSEM, promoting exclusive marketing of SOYUZ launch services.

EUTELSAT's approach to the selection of launch services

This article elaborates on the approach that EUTELSAT takes when it has to select launch services for one or several of its satellites. It must be pointed out here that EUTELSAT's experience is concentrated on geostationary satellites. Specificities of Low Earth Orbit (LEO) or Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) satellites are therefore not addressed.

A launcher family backing the competitive position of ARIANE 5

One of the key characteristics of space transportation in the next decade will be the diversity of the missions required, demanding increased flexibility in terms of launch services. This requirement will be apparent in all three market segments: geostationary satellites, constellations and scientific/governmental applications. To meet this new demand, the space transportation operators are seeking to establish a range of launchers.

A view of the commercial launch services market

The commercial launch market is as dynamic and evolutive as ever. Following a period of relatively steady growth, we have, however, witnessed a rather more turbulent phase in the past two years. This is partly due to the various economic and financial crises experienced in 1998 and partly to a significant increase in the number of in-orbit and on-ground problems experienced by satellite manufacturers and operators. What is the Arianespace's view of the current market and of the short and medium-term trends?