Late Pleistocene Deposits Research Articles

Rodent palaeofaunas from Biśnik Cave (Kraków-Częstochowa Upland, Poland): Palaeoecological, palaeoclimatic and biostratigraphic reconstruction

A unique record of faunal changes from the late Middle Pleistocene until the end of the late Pleistocene was provided by rodent assemblages from Biśnik Cave in Poland. The 17 rodent assemblages, of different qualitative and quantitative composition, included a total of 25 species of various ecological requirements and associated with five types of climate, represented by over 8500 individuals. For biostratigraphic analysis, the following indices were used: the ratio of enamel thickness on anterior and posterior edges of tooth loops in the genus Arvicola (SDQ), and morphological teeth changeability of Microtus oeconomus and Dicrostonyx. All three biostratigraphic methods are consistent, and made it possible to determine the stratigraphic position of the rodent assemblages. The layers from 19 to 14 were deposited in Middle Pleistocene, and the layers from 13 to 1 were deposited in the Late Pleistocene. The layers 14 and 13 constitute the border between the Middle and Late Pleistocene. Climatic and environmental conditions (temperature and humidity, duration of vegetation season) during the deposition were reconstructed, based on the assemblages representing the late Middle Pleistocene (layers 19–14; MIS 7-6), the Eemian interglacial (layers 14, 13; MIS 5e), and the Vistulian (Weichselian) glaciation (layers 12–1; MIS 5d-2). The analysis of bioclimatic indices made it possible to determine the most probable climate during the deposition of the respective assemblages. The environmental preferences allowed reconstruction of the prevailing biomes in the environments of Biśnik Cave. The results of quantitative bioclimatic analysis indicate that the deposition of same of the assemblages may be associated with cold temperature climate. The values of 11 climatic indices show the oscillations of two types of climate, temperate and boreal, with oceanic and continental influence. Reconstruction values of 11 climatic parameters shows an interesting pattern of relative stability in almost all the climatic parameters. Only drought length shows a remarkable change across Middle and Late Pleistocene sediment sequences from Biśnik Cave.

Occurrences and origins of soft-sediment deformation structures in the late Pleistocene marine terrace deposits of the southeastern coast of Korea

Soft-sediment deformation structures (SSDS) are examined in the late Pleistocene marine terrace deposits of the southeastern coast of the Korean Peninsula. The marine terrace deposits are exposed in thicknesses of more than 10 m, and consist of lagoon, foreshore to backshore, coastal dune, and foreshore to backshore deposits in ascending order. The SSDS are restricted to the coastal dune deposits and the upper part of the underlying foreshore to backshore deposits, and are grouped into ductile and brittle deformation structures. The ductile deformation structures include irregular laminations, compacted laminations in the hinge zone of folds, asymmetric folds of foreset laminae, and water escape structures. The brittle deformation structures include syndepositional faults or deformation bands. The most probable triggering mechanism for the SSDS is liquefaction by moderate-magnitude earthquakes (M = 5–5.5). Likely, the SSDS were generated over time in various stress fields, including those of main shocks, aftershocks, and later seismic events. The evolution of the SSDS-bearing deposits in the study area can be summarised as follows: 1) rising of the groundwater table in the coastal dune deposits as a result of seismic shock, 2) formation of SSDS by liquefaction in the lower part of the dune deposits and upper part of the underlying foreshore to backshore deposits, 3) descending of the groundwater table, and 4) deposition of foreshore to backshore deposits on the SSDS-bearing dune deposits with erosion of the top of the dune deposits.

The Late Paleoindian Occupation of the Western Ouachita Mountains of Southeast Oklahoma: The Archaeology of Component V at the Quince Site (34AT134)

The Quince site (34AT134) is a well-preserved and relatively deeply stratified Ouachita Mountains archaeological site in Atoka County in southeastern Oklahoma. The site’s archaeological deposits are buried in Late Pleistocene and Holocene alluvial terrace deposits of McGee Creek, a tributary to Muddy Boggy Creek, itself a southern-flowing tributary to the Red River, that cuts through the western edge of the mountains. Excavated in 1982 and 1983 prior to the creation of McGee Creek Reservoir by the Bureau of Reclamation, the 3.0 m deep archaeological deposits at the Quince site contained a record of prehistoric occupations spanning most of the Holocene period (from ca. 10,500 B.P to 1000 radiocarbon years B.P., or ca. 12,590 to 927 calibrated years B.P.) Woodland (Component I), Late Archaic (Components II and III), and Middle Archaic (Component IV) period occupational deposits are present in good stratigraphic order within the upper 1 m of McGee Creek alluvium. There are also a series of buried Late Paleoindian occupations (in what is defined as Component V) with features and chipped stone lithic tools recovered in situ that are recognized beginning from about 1.10 m to 3.0 m in depth below the surface. In this article, I discuss the archaeological evidence for use of the Western Ouachita Mountains by Late Paleoindian foragers as seen principally from the micro-scale; that is, from the perspective of this one well-preserved and stratified Late Paleoindian site. Paleoindian occupations with good stratigraphic context are apparently quite rare in the Ouachita Mountains and along the edge of the Southeastern woodlands and the Great Plains in the eastern and eastcentral part of the state of Oklahoma. Much of the archaeological research dealing with Late Paleoindian peoples in this region has dealt primarily with the description and classification of isolated temporally diagnostic projectile points (and the kinds of lithic raw materials employed in projectile point manufacture) found on the surface or in mixed and relatively shallow stratigraphic contexts. The Quince site Late Paleoindian archaeological deposits provide direct and compelling evidence for the long-term and recurrent use of the western Ouachita Mountains by hunter-gatherer groups.

Middle Palaeolithic cultural levels from Middle and Late Pleistocene sediments of Biśnik Cave, Poland

Biśnik Cave is situated in the limestone rock, 6 m above the bottom of the currently dry Wodąca valley. It is located in the Smoleń–Niegowonice Range, in the southern part of the Częstochowa Upland (Poland). The stratigraphic sequence, which encompasses middle and upper Pleistocene sediments, is unique in Central Europe. It enabled the reconstruction of changes occurring in the Middle Palaeolithic in the Polish Jura. Middle Palaeolithic cultural levels at the Biśnik Cave are discussed in the context of spatial analysis of the site's utility zones, with regard to hearths in particular phases of cave inhabitation. The results were linked with typological and use wear analysis of separate assemblages of artefacts.Microstratigraphic analysis revealed a far more complex character of settlement processes, especially with reference to older cultural horizons (A6-A5). Several sub-levels have been distinguished, phases of inhabitation in each layer. It was possible to indicate tendencies in the location of hearths in “cool” and “warm” layers, as well as point to a steady tendency of the shift of the site's utility space towards the entrance of the cave. The functions of particular zones of the site have been determined whenever possible, with the help of the results of traseological analysis. It was possible to characterise the technology and typology of assemblages found in particular layers and provide the description of their cultural character against the background of other Middle Palaeolithic sites in central-eastern Europe.

The Avifauna of Southern Istria (Croatia) During the Late Pleistocene: Implications for the Palaeoecology and Biodiversity of the Northern Adriatic Region

ABSTRACTThis paper presents palaeoecological and taphonomic analyses of bird remains from Late Pleistocene sediments from two caves in southern Istria, Šandalja II and Ljubićeva pećina. Most of the identified species are found today in Istria and along the Adriatic coast, although the presence of ptarmigan (Lagopus mutus) and willow grouse (L. lagopus) indicates colder conditions than those characteristic of the region today. Taxa from both sites are characteristic of open, forest‐steppe, rocky, forest, and mixed biotopes. These sites differ somewhat in avifaunal composition — aquatic‐adapted taxa are only found at Šandalja II, probably reflecting differences in human activities and in their geographic settings. Likewise, only Šandalja's assemblages show an increase in the representation of forest‐adapted taxa over time. These data from the bird remains complement reconstructions based on mammalian assemblages from these sites. Different taphonomic agents accumulated the bird bones, and bone surface modifications show that birds of prey, small carnivores, and Late Upper Palaeolithic people helped accumulate these remains. The important Late Pleistocene avifaunal assemblages from southern Istria indicate that a mosaic of habitats was present during the Late Pleistocene and a deep time depth to the rich biodiversity of the region today. Furthermore they suggest that the exposed Adriatic Plain supported a diverse and rich biome. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Cave bears (Carnivora, Ursidae) from the Middle and Late Pleistocene of Serbia: A revision

Cave bear remains are known from 36 caves and other karst features, and from one open-air site in Serbia. The sites vary greatly by their morphology and size, position, altitude, stratigraphy and diversity of the fossil fauna. The cave bear stands out as a dominant species at the majority of the sites; at a number of sites it is the single species found. There are only few sites where herbivores' or predators' remains exceed those of the cave bears. The majority of cave bear remains originate from the Late Pleistocene deposits. Previously, they have been identified as Ursus spelaeus.We present a morphology and metric study of cave bears from three sites: two recently discovered localities of Middle Pleistocene age, and the Risovača cave, which may be regarded as the reference site for the Late Pleistocene mammals in the region based on a large number of collected remains and published data. The remains of the Middle Pleistocene spelaeoid bears are described from Mala Balanica cave (Eastern Serbia) and an open-air site at Ruma brickyard (Northern Serbia) for the first time. Considering the size and morphology of cheek teeth and metapodial bones, these cave bears are identified as Ursus spelaeus deningeroides. The cheek teeth morphology and size, as well as metapodial bones' metric, relate the cave bear from the Risovača cave to the advanced evolutive type of the cave bear established in Central and Eastern Europe Ursus spelaeus ingressus.

A single-aliquot luminescence dating procedure for K-feldspar based on the dose-dependent MET-pIRIR signal sensitivity

It has been shown previously that the ‘sensitivity’ of the post-infrared infrared stimulated luminescence (post-IR IRSL or pIRIR) signal—that is, the intensity of the test dose signal (Tx)—can retain a ‘memory’ of the pre-dose received in nature, but can be reset by sunlight bleaching. Based on this observation, we describe here a single-aliquot regenerative-dose (SAR) multiple elevated temperature (MET) pIRIR dating procedure for K-feldspar that differs in one important respect from the conventional SAR MET-pIRIR procedure. Instead of using a high temperature IR bleaching step between each SAR cycle—as in the conventional procedure—our modified procedure uses a solar simulator bleach for 2 h to reset the dose-dependent pIRIR signal sensitivity before each regenerative SAR cycle. We show that the De can be obtained directly from either the Tx signal or the sensitivity-uncorrected signal (Lx) using the modified procedure. Both of these signals saturate at a higher dose than the sensitivity-corrected signal (Lx/Tx) and, hence, can be used to date older sediments than is feasible using conventional IRSL or pIRIR methods. We have tested our new procedure on 10 sediment samples from different regions of Europe (France and Italy) and Asia (China, Georgia and India), including samples with independently known ages of between ∼48 and ∼470 ka. Based on these external comparisons of age, and on internal (dose recovery) validation tests of the performance of this new pre-dose MET-pIRIR (or pMET-pIRIR) SAR procedure, we conclude that it can potentially measure natural doses of up to ∼1500 Gy in K-feldspar and produce reliable ages for Late and Middle Pleistocene sediments.

Impact of shallow-living radiolarian flux variations on North Atlantic Cycladophora davisiana percentages

The cause of high Cycladophora davisiana percentages, a deep-living (maximum abundance > 200 m) radiolarian species, in high-latitude (> 45°) late Pleistocene deep-sea sediments has been much debated. In this paper we show that in four subpolar North Atlantic cores these late Pleistocene high percentages (> 20%) result more from a reduction of other radiolarian flux, predominantly shallow-living species (< 200 m), than to an increase of C. davisiana flux relative to Holocene flux. These findings are similar to those reported from the North Pacific (Hays et al., 2013). In both oceans, the late Pleistocene to Holocene shallow-living species' flux increase is larger than the concomitant decrease of C. davisiana flux. Similarly, high C. davisiana percentages (> 20%) found today in Okhotsk Sea Holocene sediments (Kruglikova, 1975; Robertson, 1975; Morley and Hays, 1983) result from low radiolarian concentrations in the overlying dicothermal layer (20–150 m) where year round temperatures are near 0 °C. It is likely that the high C. davisiana percentages in North Atlantic late Pleistocene sediments were caused by a similar overlying stratification that had important biological consequences for radiolarians and other plankton. A more significant time transgressive increase in Shallow and Others radiolarian Assemblage flux occurs initially in the southernmost core in mid-Holocene, ultimately recorded at the northernmost site during the late Holocene. Here flux of the Deep Assemblage and C. davisiana also increases.

Biogeographic and Evolutionary Implications of an Extinct Late Pleistocene Impala from the Lake Victoria Basin, Kenya

This study contributes to the growing complexity of the impala fossil record through a morphological description and analysis of Aepyceros fossils from late Pleistocene deposits in Kenya’s Lake Victoria Basin. We show that the Lake Victoria impala belongs to an extinct species that differs from modern impala and its fossil predecessors by a combination of exceptionally deep mandibles and teeth characterized by greater hypsodonty and occlusal lengths. Whereas modern impala (A. melampus) displays substantial ecological flexibility, these traits in the extinct species suggest a more dedicated adaptation to grazing in open and dry environments. Previous phylogeographic observations indicate that A. melampus was extirpated from East Africa, perhaps during the middle-to-late Pleistocene, and later recolonized from southern Africa. The Lake Victoria impala raises the possibility that the evidence interpreted as extirpation may instead reflect speciation, with A. melampus giving rise to a novel East African species while persisting unchanged in southern Africa. Increased rainfall and rising atmospheric CO2 concentrations at the end of the Pleistocene may have played a role in the disappearance of the extinct form via habitat loss and possibly competition with the more versatile A. melampus.

Environment during the Middle to Late Palaeolithic transition in southern France: The archaeological sequence of Tournal Cave (Bize-Minervois, France)

Late Pleistocene deposits of Tournal Cave, southwestern France, provided several human occupations attributed to Mousterian, Aurignacian, and Magdalenian cultures. Some human remains (Homo neanderthalensis and Homo sapiens) were identified in each unit. This study presents a detailed temporal reconstruction of habitats surrounding the cave, using various proxies based on rich large mammal assemblages and related to biological activities. The levels correlated to MIS 3 and MIS 2 are characterized by alternating carnivore, Neanderthal, and Anatomically Modern Human (AMH) occupations. Faunal exploitation was mainly oriented towards Equus caballus and Rangifer tarandus, with a significant increase in the latter prey from the last Aurignacian level onwards. The results exhibit geographic and temporal variations of reindeer and horse body size. Reindeer can be used as a suitable ecological marker, as rapid changes are correlated to environmental turnover, whereas the horse presents a different pattern and is an accurate chronological estimator. The palaeoecological results indicate a major climate change between the two Aurignacian levels. The Mousterian and the first Aurignacian levels, documenting the Middle to Late Palaeolithic transition, show high indices of specific richness and diversity of large mammals in relation with a periglacial moderate cold and wet climate. The region developed a mixed landscape and displayed a non-analogue fauna with E. caballus, R. tarandus, Cervus elaphus, Megaloceros giganteus, Bison priscus, Bos primigenius, Capra caucasica praepyrenaica, Sus scrofa and Coelodonta antiquitatis for the ungulates and Ursus spelaeus, Ursus arctos, Crocuta crocuta spelaea, Panthera leo spelaea, Panthera pardus, Lynx spelaeus, Canis lupus and Vulpes vulpes for the carnivores. The breakdown occurring in the last Aurignacian level is characterized by a change in ecological settings, with a colder and drier climate and opening of the landscape, involving shifts in seasonality, plant phenology, reindeer body size and animal population densities. This impacted habitat fragmentation and geographic distribution of populations, implying various selective pressures that were reflected in human meat procurement and dispersal events. At Tournal Cave, the late Middle/early Late Palaeolithic transition is not directly marked by significant differences in terms of faunal exploitation, due to local climate and site function, but the major environmental shift recorded is delayed. The results indicate that abrupt climate oscillations during MIS 3 contributed to the decline of Neanderthal populations, notably because of habitat fragmentation. AMHs could have generated additional stresses.

The influence of climate and sea-level change on the Holocene evolution of a Mediterranean coastal lagoon: Evidence from ostracod palaeoecology and geochemistry

Coastal lagoons provide an excellent basis for the study of processes controlling the evolution of a coastal zone. We examine the relative importance of these processes during the middle to late Holocene through a study of an 8.5meter-long sediment record from the Albufera de Valencia (Spain). We combine sedimentological analyses with investigations into the palaeoecology, taphonomy and geochemistry (Mg/Ca, Sr/Ca, δ18O and δ13C) of ostracod valves in order to assess the effects of sea-level changes, storm events and effective moisture on the evolution of a Western Mediterranean coastal wetland. The late Pleistocene sediments represent a subaerial environment, which was followed by a hiatus in deposition. The first Holocene unit (∼8700–7500 calendar yr. BP) is composed of typical lagoon-barrier and backshore sediments, deposited when seawater intruded into the lake and the climate was arid. The upper part of the sequence (between 7500 and 3400 yr.) is characterized by two sedimentary units, which correspond to Holocene progradation phases and humid climate associated with an increased freshwater influx to the lake accompanied by several high-energy events (palaeostorms). Overall, the record shows that an arid climate prevailed in the western Mediterranean area between 8400 and 7600 yr. The main marine transgression and accompanying progradational phases occurred between 7000 and 3400 yr., which is confirmed by other studies of coastal evolution along the Mediterranean coast. The multiproxy reconstructions demonstrate that controls on sedimentation and palaeoecology in this Mediterranean coastal lagoon were complex.

The 200,000 year long record of stable isotopes (δ18O, δ13C) of cave bear (Ursus spelaeus) teeth from Biśnik Cave, Poland

The excavations in Biśnik Cave created an opportunity to investigate changes in δ13C and δ18O values of Ursus spelaeus teeth from one site along a 200,000 year period of sedimentation, for the first time in Eastern Europe. Biśnik Cave (Kraków–Częstochowa Upland, southern Poland) is a multilayered archaeological and paleontological site with late Middle Pleistocene and Late Pleistocene sediments, where several important changes of Quaternary climate have been recorded. The project considered if and how detailed the isotopic data from one multilayered site record these great climatic changes. The method used was an isotopic analysis of carbonate in bioapatite from tooth enamel. Teeth of cave bear (U. spelaeus) were chosen as research material. The results showed that the δ18O values of cave bear teeth from Biśnik Cave range from −14.9 to −4.4‰ VPDB with some variation between particular layers. Values of δ13C vary between −20.5 and −14.5‰ VPDB. The analysis revealed that isotopic record is diverse between different types of teeth, probably due to differences in time of growth and different impact of nursing and hibernation. The results verify the responsiveness of this species to great climatic changes during Middle and Late Pleistocene in Eastern Europe. Cave bear was an ecologically inflexible species, associated with the same type of food during 200,000 years and not able to cope with the coldest phases of the Pleistocene.

Holocene environmental change resets lichen surface dates on Recess Peak glacial deposits in the Sierra Nevada, California

Development of an accurate chronology for glacial deposits in the Sierra Nevada has long been problematic given the lack of suitable organic material for radiocarbon dating. Lichenometry initially appeared promising as ages showed an increase from cirque headwalls to down-canyon moraines. However, while Recess Peak lichen age estimates range from 2 to 3ka, recent work shows these deposits to be at least 10ka older. Here, we present evidence for a late Holocene reset of Recess Peak lichen ages by significant post-depositional climate change. Following late-Pleistocene deposition of Recess Peak moraines, warming through the mid-Holocene allowed forests to advance into shallow basins eliminating local inverted tree lines. This produced a partial canopy where shading killed the original post-Pleistocene crustose lichen colonies. Late-Holocene cooling resulted in forest retreat from these basins as alpine tree line fell. Lichens then recolonized the re-exposed Recess Peak deposits. We conclude that while Recess Peak lichen ages are accurate to within the dating uncertainty of the technique, existing lichen ages actually date the timing of post-mid-Holocene cooling and recolonization, and not the original emplacement of these deposits. Thus, applications of Lichenometry should consider post-depositional environmental change when interpreting the meaning of these dates.

Fossil Bats from the Late Pleistocene Red Hills Road Cave, Jamaica

Abstract Fossil bats (Chiroptera) are rare in the Late Pleistocene sediments of the Red Hills Road Cave, parish of St. Andrew, Jamaica. Mandibles from this site include three species, all new to the Pleistocene of the island. Stenoderma rufum Desmarest, a frugivore, is the most common taxon. It is still extant in the more eastern Greater Antilles, but has been extirpated from Jamaica. Tadarida sp. cf. T. brasiliensis I. Geoffroy St.-Hillaire represents a taxon still widespread in the Greater Antilles; S. rufum and T. brasiliensis occur together in St. John at the present day. Chiropteran spp. indet. are known from incomplete mandibles and are, at best, morphologically distinct from the other two species at this site.

First Fossil Record ofMelanoplusdifferentialis(Orthoptera: Acrididae: Melanoplinae)

ABSTRACT: The first fossil representative of Melanoplus differentialis (Orthoptera: Acrididae: Melanoplinae) is documented from Late Pleistocene asphalt deposits of the McKittrick tar pits in southern California, USA. The specimen, an incomplete but well preserved adult male, is identified as M. differentialis based on the structure of the terminalia and in particular the form of the cercus.

The role of iron minerals in laminae formation in Late Pleistocene sediments of the Caspian Sea

The 995 cm long sediment core was collected from the Central basin of the Caspian Sea. The sedimentary sequence, which covers the Late Pleistocene and Holocene, is marked in its Late Pleistocene section by well-developed black and grey/brownish laminae, which promptly disappear under oxidising conditions. Studies of granulometry, major elements, carbonate and organic matter content, and magnetic parameters, were conducted at laminae scale. In non-magnetic parameters, only sulphur clearly changes between black and grey/brownish laminae. Magnetic parameters indicate the presence of high contents of iron sulphide (greigite) in black laminae, while low contents of iron oxide (magnetite) are detected in grey/brownish laminae. The lamination is due to early diagenesis in sediment just below the sea bed, related to the oxygenation state of the bottom water. Under poorly oxygenated conditions, greigite is formed in anoxic sediment, with increased oxygenation, detrital magnetite is preserved. Broadly similar processes were described from the Southern Caspian Sea basin. During the Late Pleistocene, both basins were subjected to the same, rhythmic ventilation of bottom waters. Efficient ventilation is most probably related to the harshness of the winter (cold/mild winters) and thus production of more or less cold, dense descending waters, and the content of fresh water supply from the catchment area. These two processes can act annually, as well as on a longer time scale.

Stratigraphic architecture and anthropic impacts on subsoil to assess the intrinsic potential vulnerability of groundwater: the northeastern Campania Plain case study, southern Italy

This study attempts to assess the aquifer vulnerability in the northeastern sector of the Campania Plain (southern Italy). The area is a highly populated region with anthropic impacts caused by rapid urban growth, quarrying, agricultural and industrial activities and uncontrolled waste storage. The main geologic feature of this plain is the alternation of alluvial/transitional and volcaniclastic deposits of Late Pleistocene–Holocene age. The study was performed integrating different sets of geologic and environmental data to restore the stratigraphic architecture and to assess anthropic impacts on subsoil. The reconstruction of stratigraphic subsurface architecture was based on remarkable geodatabase, concerning well log stratigraphies. Specific insights have been delineated on the volcaniclastic lithofacies heteropies across the entire area of study to highlight the differences in lithification degree and permeability. The contribution of pedogenesis on the reconstruction of the stratigraphic setting was also considered for the relative implications on groundwater quality concerns, as paleosols are usually regarded as aquitards. All of this information has been managed into a GIS project to produce a detailed 3D geological reconstruction, integrated with hydrogeological information to provide a model of the aquifer under study, highlighting sites of greater vulnerability to pollution. The anthropic impacts on subsoil were assessed by evaluating land-uses and overlaying the ANHI (Agricultural Nitrate Hazard Index) Map. The integration of the above datasets has allowed to check the reliability of the previsional empirical model with respect to the hydrostratigraphic model based on a thorough stratigraphic model and to verify the real potential of contamination.

Definition of the Quaternary Qiangtang Paleolake in Qinghai‐Tibetan Plateau, China

Abstract:Since the Quaternary, many lakes have been present in the Qinghai‐Tibetan Plateau. As peculiar geological processes in the evolution of the uplifting of Qinghai‐Tibetan Plateau, the distributions and evolutions of the Quaternary paleolakes in the Qinghai‐Tibetan Plateau have been the focus of interest among the international geosciences circle. Comparisons of the newly obtained and existing data from field surveys, remote sensing images, characteristics of tectonic landforms and distribution of the lacustrine strata, the author have, for the first time, defined a large‐sized Quaternary Qiangtang Paleolake. The paleolake starts from the east‐westerly direction at Rutog in western Tibet, passing through Gêrzê, and finally ends at Nagqu in eastern Tibet. Its length is approximately 1,200 km; it is about 420 km at its widest point (north‐southerly). The Paleolake forms an E‐W (or NWW) ellipsoid with an estimated area of 354920 km2. The Paleolake is bordered by the Mts. Gangdisê and Nyainqêntanglha to the south and the Karakorum Pass‐Tozê Kangri‐Zangbagangri‐ Tanggula Pass to the north. It generally appears as a basinal landform with low mountains and valleys in the central part (altitudes of 4400 m) and higher altitudes (5000 m) in the peripheries. The formation and development of the Paleolake was controlled by the nearly E‐W trending structures. There are three east‐westerly extending tectonic sutures inside the Paleolake area, from north to south: (1) the Shuanghu Suture; (2) the Bangong Co‐Nujiang River Suture; (3) the Shiquanhe‐Lhari Suture. These three sutures have generally controlled the spreading features of the Paleolake and act as the first grade lake‐controlling structures. In the southern Paleolake basin, there are a series of south‐northerly rift basins, which are controlled by the normal faults and exist as a series of south‐northerly grabens and semi‐graben faulted basins. The south‐northerly rift zones have clearly exerted control over the south margin of the Paleolake as well as the distribution of the residual lake basins after the Paleolake's break up. They are the secondary lake‐controlling tectonics. Discoveries of the lacustrine strata inside the Plateau, especially the successive discoveries of many high‐stand lacustrine strata, are direct evidence supporting the existence of the paleolakes in the Plateau. The dating results of the lake‐eroded travertine in the Dong Co in the hinterland of the Quaternary Qiangtang Paleolake have revealed that the lake‐eroded travertine is of Late Pleistocene sediments. By considering the analysis of the lacustrine strata as well, the researchers have revealed that the Quaternary Qiangtang Paleolake begins its embryonic form in the Early Pleistocene, successively develops till the Middle Pleistocene, and reaches its full blossom in the middle stage of the Late Pleistocene; it further shrinks and separates by the end of the Late Pleistocene, and finally ceases its whole life as the paleolake. After the Holocene, the huge Late Pleistocene Qiangtang Paleolake no longer exists, leaving a series of widely distributed smaller lakes on the Qiangtang Plateau. These smaller, isolated water systems receive the Holocene lacustrine sediments.

Mud volcano origin of the Mottled Zone, South Levant

The Mottled Zone (MZ) or Hatrurim Formation, which occurs near the Levantine Transform in the South Levant, has been studied during the last 150 years but its origin remains debatable. Mottled Zone Complex/Complexes (MZC/MZCs) consist of brecciated carbonate and low-temperature calcium-hydrosilicate rocks, which include unusual high- and ultra-high-temperature low-pressure (HT-LP) metamorphic mineral assemblages. The MZ has been regarded as a product of combustion of bituminous chalks of the Ghareb Fm. of Cretaceous (Maastrichtian) age. In this paper we present detailed geographic, geomorphologic, structural and geological data from the MZCs of the South Levant, which show that the MZCs cannot be stratigraphically correlated with the Ghareb Fm., because MZC late Oligocene–late Pleistocene deposits occur within or unconformably, i.e., with stratigraphic hiatus, overlap both the late Cretaceous and, in places, Neogene stratigraphic units. We propose an alternative model for the formation of MZCs by tectonically induced mud volcanism during late Oligocene–late Pleistocene time. This model explains (i) the presence of dikes and tube-like bodies, which consist of brecciated exotic clastic material derived from stratigraphically and hypsometrically lower horizons; (ii) mineral assemblages of sanidinite facies metamorphism; (iii) multi-stage character of HT-LP pyrometamorphism; and (iv) multi-stage low-temperature hydrothermal alteration. High temperatures (up to 1500 °C) mineral assemblages resulted from combustion of hydrocarbon gases of mud volcanoes. Mud volcanism was spatially and structurally related to neotectonic folds and deformation zones formed in response to opening of the Red Sea rift and propagation of the Levantine Transform Fault. Our model may significantly change the prospects for oil-and-gas deposits in the region.

First record of Procyon cancrivorus (G. Cuvier, 1798) (Carnivora, Procyonidae) in stratigraphic context in the Late Pleistocene of Brazil

Although five genera of procyonids are currently present in South America, only two of the extant genera, Procyon and Nasua are represented in the South American fossil record. A recent discovery of a procyonid lower second molar in Late Pleistocene deposits of Aurora do Tocantins, northern Brazil, offers potential to further our understanding of the stratigraphic and temporal range of South American fossil procyonids. We use geometric morphometric analysis of two-dimensional landmarks and semilandmarks to explore morphological variation in the lower second molars of extant Procyon lotor and Procyon cancrivorus and multivariate methods to support the identification of the Pleistocene specimen as P. cancrivorus. This material represents the second fossil record of P. cancrivorus in South America Procyonids entered South America in two phases: the first comprising by Cyonasua and Chapadmalania during the Late Miocene, and the other recent genera, beginning in the Late Pleistocene. These Late Miocene procyonids were more carnivorous than Late Pleistocene-Recent omnivorous taxa and possible went extinct due to competition with other placental carnivorans that entered South America and diversified during the latest Pliocene-Early Pleistocene.