Late Intermediate Period Research Articles

Oral pathology patterns in late farmers of the Central Andes: A comparative perspective between coastal and highland populations

Aiming at future comparisons with earlier hunter-gatherers or transitional populations, this paper intends to characterize and describe the oral pathology pattern of late agriculturalists from Central Andes dating to the Late Intermediate Period (LIP) and Inca periods (1000–1532 CE), and identify differences and/or similarities between coastal and highland populations. Although the botanical inventories of the LIP suggest carbohydrate-rich diets and similar components, it has been hypothesized that coastal and highland populations had, nevertheless, substantially different oral pathology patterns. We evaluated 14 indicators of oral pathology from Los Pinos (n=200) and Armatambo (n=25) sites in the Central Coast and two chronological phases from Laguna de los Cóndores site (LC-Inca, n=23; and LC-LIP, n=55), in the Peruvian northern highlands. The results showed a recurrent pattern of oral pathologies characterized by cervical caries (above 30%), extra-occlusal caries (above 60%), high rates of gross-gross caries, high frequency of ante mortem tooth loss, and signals of periodontal disease among these four populations. The diets of the coast were slightly more abrasive than those of the highlands. Oral pathology patterns were compatible with a slightly more cariogenic diet in the coast than in the highlands. In all four populations, those patterns were modulated by other common factors such as consumption of fermented drinks (maize beer – chicha) and the coca leaf chewing habit.

Steering Clear of the Dead: Avoiding Ancestors in the Moquegua Valley, Peru

ABSTRACTAncestors are a central and recurring theme in scholarship on mortuary practices in the pre‐Hispanic Andes. Archaeological and ethnohistoric data indicate that in many times and places the dead were critical social actors. Physical interaction with the bodies and spaces of ancestors was important in legitimizing claims to heritage, land, resources, and status. Yet, relatively neglected in the literature on Andean attitudes to the dead is how people dealt with other people's ancestors. To address this, I examine how a Late Intermediate Period community, who circa AD 1250 occupied an earlier terminal Middle Horizon village in southern Peru, managed interactions with their predecessors’ dead. Excavations at the site reveal considerable evidence for active avoidance of cemeteries associated with the older village, which contrasts with the re‐utilization of earlier domestic space. Moreover, aversion to the ancestors of others was practiced alongside active engagement with the new community's “own” dead. Drawing on Lau's recent (2013) discussion of alterity in the ancient Andes, I propose that just as interacting with one's own ancestors is frequently interpreted as a way of reifying belonging, steering clear of the dead can be equally powerful in community building and identity negotiation during major sociopolitical upheaval. [alterity, funerary practice, Andean South America]

COPING WITH CONFLICT: DEFENSIVE STRATEGIES AND CHRONIC WARFARE IN THE PREHISPANIC NAZCA REGION

Warfare was a prevalent phenomenon throughout the Andes during the Late Intermediate period (LIP; AD 1000–1450). A salient research topic within broader investigations of conflict is how populations cope with chronic warfare. This article utilizes statistical and GIS-based analyses of architectural features and settlement patterns to reconstruct defensive coping mechanisms among groups living in 15 fortified settlements in the Nazca region of Peru. This research evaluates how populations deployed artificial defenses (fortifications), natural defensibility, and settlement placement to best protect themselves and critical resources from enemy incursions. Intersite variation in fortification was primarily driven by population size: the smallest and most vulnerable settlements were the most heavily fortified and occupied the least accessible areas. Variation in fortification investment within each site was driven by differences in the accessibility of approaches leading to the residential sector of a site. Settlement patterns were largely driven by natural defensibility, large viewsheds, and proximity to economic resources. This research demonstrates that LIP populations made optimal trade-offs between competing defensive variables, revealing highly patterned regional defensive strategies. Broader spatial, settlement, and architectural data indicate that warfare in the region was chronic and internecine.

New Research on the Late Prehistoric Coastal Polities of Northern Peru

Previously, the Chimu empire was thought to have dominated the north coast of Peru during the Late Intermediate period, virtually to the exclusion of other polities. However, new research on sites from this period has not only changed perspectives on the Chimu, but also shed light on two other important coastal polities: the Lambayeque/Sican and the Casma, providing insights with the potential to reshape our understanding of the development of urbanism and the Andean state. This article presents a critical summary of recent literature, fieldwork, and discoveries. Analyses of these new data address a wide range of topics that can be loosely grouped into four major areas: complexity in political organization and the geopolitical landscape, variations in the urban environment, the intensification of trade and exchange, and dynamic expressions of religion and ideology. The latest interpretation of the north coast Late Intermediate period is a story of three major, competing polities that were eventually subsumed under one.

Maize (Zea mays) consumption in the southern andes (30°-31° S. Lat): Stable isotope evidence (2000 BCE-1540 CE).

The timing and dietary role of maize agriculture is central to archaeological discussions in the Andean region. In the semi-arid region of northern Chile (SARNC), archaeological models propose that maize was adopted during the Early Ceramic period in tandem with pottery and sedentism. Through stable isotope (SI) analyses, of bone collagen and apatite, this study assesses the timing of maize introduction, diachronic changes (2,000 BCE to 1,540 CE.), and synchronic dietary variability in the prehistoric SARNC. Fifty-two prehistoric individuals from SARNC were analyzed for δ13 Cap , δ13 Ccol, and δ15 N. Descriptive statistics were used to characterize the results by period and location (inland and coast). Between-periods (ANOVA or Kruskal-Wallis tests), and synchronic comparisons (inland vs. coast; Student's t-tests), were conducted. A SIAR model was run to further evaluate dietary changes. Dietary interpretations are based on food web data. Coastal groups show significant changes in the diet during the Middle (900-1,000CE; enrichment in δ13 C), and Late Intermediate periods (100-1450CE; when the Δ13 Cap-col is above 5.2‰). In the inland, significant changes in SI occurred in the Late Intermediate period (δ13 C enrichment). In the Late period, the inland diet became enriched for δ15 N. Synchronic comparisons showed coastal individuals to have higher δ15 N. The popularization of maize in the SARNC was not associated with the appearance of pottery and/or sedentism, and its role as a dietary staple was a late phenomenon (c.a. 1,000CE). The results obtained in this study show that the adoption and consumption of maize varied dramatically in the Southern Andes.

Paired Radiocarbon Dating on Human Samples and Camelid Fibers and Textiles from Northern Chile: The Case of Pica 8 (Tarapacá)

AbstractPica 8 is a Late Intermediate Period (AD 900–1450) cemetery located in the Atacama Desert. Burials at the site present unexpectedly high variability in δ13C (–8‰ to –16‰) and δ15N (10‰ to 24‰) values in their skeletal tissues, implying highly diverse diets. There are two possible explanations for this variability: the first is diachronic change in diet while the second involves synchronic sociocultural distinctions. To distinguish between them a radiocarbon (14C) dating program (n=23) was initiated. The presumed importance of marine foods adds the complication of a marine reservoir effect. To address this problem, paired 14C dates were obtained on human bone and camelid textiles from nine graves. The results fall into two groups, one showing an average offset of 117±9 14C yr, and the other no statistically significant offsets. We conclude that the contribution of marine foods to bone collagen at Pica 8 was less than previously supposed. Other factors must be invoked to account for the unusually high human δ15N values at the site. Manuring crops with sea-bird guano emerges as a probable explanation. No relationship with chronology is seen implying the presence of considerable diversity in diets and hence lifeways within the Pica 8 community.

Biogeochemical reconstructions of life histories as a method to assess regional interactions: Stable oxygen and radiogenic strontium isotopes and Late Intermediate Period mobility on the Central Peruvian Coast

Biogeochemical reconstructions of life histories of mobility offer a means to obtain nuanced information about regional interactions in the past. We test this method using the Late Intermediate Period Ychsma society on the central Peruvian coast as a case study. Archaeological and ethnohistoric evidence indicates that the Rimac and Lurín Valleys inhabited by the Ychsma served as a key regional hub for the religious and administrative activities of the Inca Empire and the Spanish Viceroyalty. The nature of regional interactions prior to Inca imperial influence, however, remains unclear. Well-known historical narratives describe populations from the adjacent Huarochirí highlands defeating coastal Ychsma populations for agricultural land, but archaeological evidence concerning the timing and extent of coastal-highland interactions is debated. Here, we assess the potential for radiogenic strontium and stable oxygen isotopic reconstruction of mobility over the life course to shed light on the regional interactions of coastal Ychsma groups during the Late Intermediate Period. We present 87Sr/86Sr and δ18O results for 61 regional environmental baseline samples and archaeological human tooth enamel and bone samples from 64 individuals buried at Armatambo and Rinconada Alta, in the Rimac Valley. Results reveal a broad isotopic range for baseline and archaeological samples likely due to diversity in water and bedrock sources. Nevertheless, one individual presents a non-local strontium value indicating mobility to an outside region. We discuss the advantages of a life history approach, the complications of using isotopes to assess mobility in the Central Andes, and suggested directions for future research.

Shellfish, water, and entanglements: Inter-community interaction and exchange in the Huanangue Valley, Peru

Though there is a wide and diverse body of literature on interaction theory in the social sciences, it is only recently that the economic, political, and cultural implications of interaction have been studied in ancient Andean societies. This paper explores the outcomes of interaction between Chancay settlers and local chaupiyunginos in the Huanangue Valley, Peru, during the Late Intermediate Period (1100–1470 CE). Drawing from entanglement theory—which explores the complex types of relationships that develop between groups when exotic goods are inserted into local systems of value (Dietler, 1998, 2010; Hodder, 2012)—I argue that intergroup exchange and resource sharing could draw small scale groups living on the western slopes of the Andes into webs of interdependency. Using a combination of ethnohistoric and archaeological data, I argue that Chancay colonists became entangled with local chaupiyunginos due to the Chancay’s need for irrigation water and the chaupiyungino’s desire for marine goods. Furthermore, though many cases of entanglement lead to one group being subjugated by the other, the Chancay’s economic power and the chaupiyungino’s tactical power may have prevented this from happening.

The End of Ayawiri: Abandonment at an Andean Hillfort Town of the Late Intermediate Period

ABSTRACTAs the south-central Andes came under Inca control, many hillfort towns and villages were abandoned in favor of low-lying, non-defensive settlements. Recent investigation at Ayawiri (Machu Llaqta), a fortified hilltop town in the Titicaca Basin of southern Peru, sheds light on how such sites met their end. Ayawiri was abandoned in the 15th century a.d. with no reoccupation and little to no scavenging afterwards. Excavated house structures have whole or reconstructible artifacts left in situ on floors, including bronze adornments and other valuables. Expediently-prepared throwing stones or slingstones were stockpiled and used near the outermost wall, suggesting that the abandonment may have been precipitated by enemy attack. While the evidence indicates rapid abandonment overall, there were distinct and varied micro-processes of abandonment that took place among different family groups at Ayawiri, who engaged differently in rituals, abandonment caching, and departure.

Exploring the culinary uses of Santa María and Belén painted vessels from the Late Intermediate Period in Catamarca, Argentina

Santa María and Belén vessels from the Late Intermediate Period (10th–15th centuries AD) in Northwest Argentina are strongly associated to funerary uses as “urns”. However, multiple recent findings of these vessels in domestic non-funerary contexts point towards diverse utilities. In this paper we carried out an exploratory analysis and selected two case studies of Santa María vessels and one of a Belén vessel, all recovered in household floors from three sites in Catamarca, Argentina. In order to enquire into the potential culinary uses of vessels, lipid residues were extracted from the ceramic matrixes and gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS) analyses were carried out to explore their origins. In all three vessels lipid residues were recovered and characterized. Two samples showed evidence of plant and animal lipid mixtures, while the third sample only had animal lipids. The culinary utility of these vessels was confirmed, and uses may have included storage or service of liquids or stews. These preliminary results provide insight into an alternative interpretation of Santa María and Belén vessel use.

The application of 3D geometric morphometrics and laser surface scanning to investigate the standardization of cranial vault modification in the Andes

Cranial vault modification and the social significance of permanent body modification have long been an important topic of interest in Andean archaeology. While previous studies have enriched our understanding of these practices among prehistoric Andean populations, the introduction of 3D surface scanners and geometric morphometric methods in archaeology enable us to examine head-shaping practices in novel ways. In this pilot study, we used a NextEngine 3D Laser Surface Scanner to generate high resolution models of artificially modified crania from four archaeological sites dating to the Archaic (2300–1600 BCE), Formative (500 CE), late Middle Horizon/early Late Intermediate period (LIP) (750–1100 CE) in Chile and late LIP crania (circa 1350 CE) from central, highland Peru. Landmarks were recorded on the 3D digital models of crania and these data were analyzed to assess variation in vault shape within and between the samples. Results of the PCA analysis showed graphical separation of the annular, tabular erect, and some tabular oblique types even when gross morphological assessments proved challenging. We documented marked variation within the general modification type traditionally identified as tabular oblique, which suggests more detailed classifications within this type are needed. We also investigated how standardized (i.e., similar) particular cranial modification types were at each site, and results show that the coastal sites of Morro 1 and Playa Miller 7, and the highlands Huari-Vegachayoc Moqo site show higher levels of standardization than the other four samples. This study highlights the utility of 3D imaging and geometric morphometric methods for straightforward, objective assessments of cranial modification and levels of standardization within sites and within particular modification types. This has implications for understanding the broader social and cultural significance of this practice, such as whether there were shared cultural norms about how a head should be modified, which could have led to highly uniform modification practices and head shapes in the Andes.

Investigating economic specialization on the central Peruvian coast: A reconstruction of Late Intermediate Period Ychsma diet using stable isotopes.

Hypothetical models of socioeconomic organization in pre-Columbian societies generated from the rich ethnohistoric record in the New World require testing against the archaeological and bioarchaeological record. Here, we test ethnohistorian Maria Rostworowski's horizontality model of socioeconomic specialization for the Central Andean coast by reconstructing dietary practices in the Late Intermediate Period (c. AD 900-1470) Ychsma polity to evaluate complexities in social behaviors prior to Inka imperial influence. Stable carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis of archaeological human bone collagen and apatite (δ13 Ccol[VPDB], δ15 Ncol[AIR] , δ13 Cap[VPDB] ) and locally available foods is used to reconstruct the diets of individuals from Armatambo (n = 67), associated ethnohistorically with fishing, and Rinconada Alta (n = 46), associated ethnohistorically with agriculture. Overall, mean δ15 Ncol[AIR] is significantly greater at Armatambo, while mean δ13 Ccol[VPDB] and mean δ13 Cap[VPDB] are not significantly different between the two sites. Within large-scale trends, adult mean δ13 Cap[VPDB] is significantly greater at Armatambo. In addition, nearly one-third of Armatambo adults and adolescents show divergent δ15 Ncol[AIR] values. These results indicate greater reliance on marine resources at Armatambo versus Rinconada Alta, supporting the ethnohistoric model of socioeconomic specialization for the Central Andean coast. Deviations from large-scale dietary trends suggest complexities not accounted for by the ethnohistoric model, including intra-community subsistence specialization and/or variation in resource access.

Reconciling archaeological and ethnohistoric data for coast-highland interaction in the Cajamarca region

Much of the emergent view of the nature and degree of interactions between the Cajamarca region and the coast comes from coastal or mid-valley contexts, with little evidence derived from the highland Cajamarca region itself. Here I investigate coast–highland interaction from the Late Intermediate Period (LIP; A.D. 1000–1465) Cajamarca settlement of Yanaorco and contrast it with what is known from ethnohistorical sources and other archaeological data sets. Ethnohistoric evidence has indicated a degree of sustained coast–highland interaction as early as the Early Intermediate Period (EIP; A.D. 1–600). For the most part, the archaeological evidence for this interaction is concordant with the ethnohistoric record, but during the LIP a hiatus has been observed, whereas ethnohistoric sources imply high levels of interaction. The new data sets from Yanaorco investigate this discrepancy and show a sharp drop in interaction between coastal and highland groups during the LIP.

Ancient DNA Analysis Suggests Negligible Impact of the Wari Empire Expansion in Peru's Central Coast during the Middle Horizon.

The analysis of ancient human DNA from South America allows the exploration of pre-Columbian population history through time and to directly test hypotheses about cultural and demographic evolution. The Middle Horizon (650–1100 AD) represents a major transitional period in the Central Andes, which is associated with the development and expansion of ancient Andean empires such as Wari and Tiwanaku. These empires facilitated a series of interregional interactions and socio-political changes, which likely played an important role in shaping the region’s demographic and cultural profiles. We analyzed individuals from three successive pre-Columbian cultures present at the Huaca Pucllana archaeological site in Lima, Peru: Lima (Early Intermediate Period, 500–700 AD), Wari (Middle Horizon, 800–1000 AD) and Ychsma (Late Intermediate Period, 1000–1450 AD). We sequenced 34 complete mitochondrial genomes to investigate the potential genetic impact of the Wari Empire in the Central Coast of Peru. The results indicate that genetic diversity shifted only slightly through time, ruling out a complete population discontinuity or replacement driven by the Wari imperialist hegemony, at least in the region around present-day Lima. However, we caution that the very subtle genetic contribution of Wari imperialism at the particular Huaca Pucllana archaeological site might not be representative for the entire Wari territory in the Peruvian Central Coast.

Modeling diet in times of change: The case of Quitor, San Pedro de Atacama, Chile

The transition from the Middle to Late Intermediate Period in the south-central Andes saw major changes in the lifeways of peoples across northern Chile; as far-flung networks of exchange and interaction broke down, social stressors and social conflict increased. In the present work, we present isotopic data from a sample (n=58) of humans drawn from several cemeteries of the Quitor ayllu, in the San Pedro de Atacama oases, and we use Bayesian mixture modeling to explore the effects of these broad social, economic, and political changes on synchronic and diachronic patterns of dietary variation. A series of hypotheses dealing with both temporal changes in diet and differences between the typical diets of females and males are tested. Ultimately, our research suggests that the disarticulation of the large interregional exchange networks of the south-central Andes at the end of the Middle Period significantly impacted the diets and lifestyle of local populations. This work also shows how the use of linear mixture modeling facilitates a more nuanced interpretation of dietary composition than visual inspection or regression analysis of isotopic data.

Radiocarbon Dating of Atacama (Chile) Snuff Trays: An Update on Stylistic and Chronological Correlations

The Atacama region of Chile has the highest concentration of hallucinogenic paraphernalia from prehistoric cemeteries on the planet. These artifacts have been studied since the late 19th century, primarily from the perspective of stylistic classification, which has been used to infer their temporal assignation. However, direct chronological dating of the snuff trays has not been addressed until now, through an interdisciplinary study conducted in San Pedro de Atacama on the psychotropic paraphernalia collection of the Instituto de Investigaciones Arqueologicas y Museo R.P. Gustavo Le Paige S.J. (IIAM), part of the Universidad Catolica del Norte. In this study, samples were taken from eight snuff trays for radiocarbon dating and to develop a suitable procedure and protocol for sample extraction and handling of wooden archaeological pieces. This article provides the results of these activities by establishing the existence of a sequence of styles in the hallucinogenic paraphernalia that goes from the Middle to Late Intermediate period (about AD 300 to 1400), which shows that in this timespan there were two styles (Tiwanaku and local), and then both were replaced by a macroregional style. DOI: 10.2458/azu_rc.57.18318

Petrology and Geochemistry of Late Intermediate Period Ceramics, Southern Peru

Multiple petrological and geochemical analytical techniques revealed significant similarities in element and mineral distribution between the 47 ceramic samples from Chillo (southern coast, Peru), a Late Intermediate Period (ad 1000–1400) archaeological site. The similarity indicates a common raw material source. The analytical results of Holocene fluvial sediment samples, Cretaceous clay layers and fired and non-fired bricks, only eliminated the Cretaceous clay layers as a potential source material. Applying Raman spectroscopy, the red and violet colour of the slip is due to hematite, the yellow colour to a mixture of hematite, graphite and gypsum, and the black colour is either graphite or jacobsite.

El poblado en altura de Topaín (segunda región, Chile): una residencia en la Tierra

This article embraces our archaeological research about domestic space of Topain settlement. This village was occupied during the final phase of the Late Intermediate Period, before the arrival of Inka Empire (850-1470 A.D.). From Landscape Archaeology and Archaeology of Architecture, we conducted a reading of the built space of Topain, using as methodological tools formal analysis and syntax analysis. Our interpretation emphasizes the existence of an urban planning and an architectural scene that reflects both socioeconomic factors (emerging social division) as cultural traditions (sacrifices and offerings to ancestors and sacred mountains).

Houses, Residential Burials, and Identity in the Rapayán Valley and the Upper Marañón Drainage, Peru, During Late Andean Prehistory

The impressive multi-story funerary monuments found in the Upper Marañón Drainage of the northern Central Andes of Peru have long fascinated people. Archaeologists and historians have studied their spatial distribution to define the identity of the populations occupying the region during the Late Intermediate period (A.D. 1000—1450). Rather than focus on monumental architecture, in this paper I explore group identity in the Upper Mara ñon by analyzing the shape and layout of houses and evidence of residential funerary practices. Based on a regional comparative approach, I argue that diversity in domestic architecture and mortuary customs reflects a constellation of distinct collective identities

Huacas de la Universidad Nacional de Ingeniería y la verdadera Huaca Aliaga

Inicialmente se hace un recuento de los restos arqueológicos en el ámbito y alrededores del campus universitario de la Universidad Nacional de Ingeniería (UNI), en Lima-Perú. La mayor parte se ubican temporalmente en el período Intermedio Tardío (1100-1440 d. C.) e Inca (1440-1532 d. C.). El primer sitio que se analiza, el más importante, es la famosa huaca Aliaga (hoy desaparecida); se precisa su verdadera ubicación, que era fuera del actual campus. Luego se indaga sobre la huaca El Carmen, en el Asentamiento Humano Villa El Carmen, vecino a la Universidad. Posteriormente se centra la indagación en los restos que estuvieron dentro del campus, como el montículo ritual que se ubicaba en el lugar que ocupa hoy la Facultad de Arquitectura, Urbanismo y Artes (FAUA), y los que aún subsisten dentro del campus: la huaca UNI-CISMID (mal llamada Aliaga) y la huaca UNI-MINAS. En este artículo se presenta una reconstrucción histórica general que revisa su ocupación prehispánica, virreinal y republicana, y la situación actual de ambas. Además, se hacen sugerencias para su puesta en valor, mostrando además casos exitosos, en el Perú y el extranjero, de intervenciones contemporáneas que incluyen restos históricos.