Large Bronze Research Articles

Tooth for tooth

Until the Hadrianic period, large bronzes had a naturalistic appearance due to polychrome elements. One element on the statues of gods, heroes and portraits that has been studied rarely are the inserted white teeth. They were invented in the late archaic or early classical period and disappeared on the large statues with the decline of the Hellenistic foundry art. Usually the upper incisors where visible behind the opened lips. The upper front teeth—and sometimes the lower once—were made of white metal (silver plating, tinning), light stone (marble), or more appropriately, bone (bone, ivory, tusks). It was still able to reconstruct four variants with several variations used for the installation of teeth in the open mouths. They could be fixed with glue. Other options consisted of hanging rows of teeth on hooks and brackets. In addition, the teeth rows were mounted in front of and on tooth backplates. Often, the installation of teeth was carried out in combination with the fitting of red lips.

Bronze casting in Late Antiquity in the Marche Region

This essay reviews the discovery of three sites where deposits of bronze fragments have been found, in the Roman cities of Pisaurum, Sentinum and Potentia. Each site yielded small bronze fragments and some tools, which lead us to suppose that these were sites of Late Antique foundries, where large bronze statues and other bronze objects were broken up to be remelted. The foundries were located on land previously occupied by taverns in the forum area or by residential quarters. This means that the urban plan of the cities had already been partially transformed, probably due to Christianisation and the construction of churches, which became the new community centres, to the detriment of the older areas of the forum. The rampant poverty and shortage of raw materials, especially metals, made foundries indispensable and, consequently, their widespread presence, even within the cities, probably became customary. Perhaps the numerous bronze fragments found in other centres of the region should also be interpreted in this same sense, as indications of foundries, even if the structures where the metal was worked have not been preserved.

Roman bronze amphoras from the Sarmatian burials of Eastern Europe

In the Sarmatian burials six intact or fragmented bronze amphoras and one separate handle of Tassinari types A3212 and A3220 were found. The peculiarities of shape, details and sizes discussed. The clear majority of large vessels (mainly from 40 to 44 cm high) in Thrace and Asian Sarmatia contrasts with the finds from Pompeii or Western and Central Europe. A significant number of amphoras from Sarmatia originate from the so-called ‘princely’ burials in the Lower Don region of the second half of the 1st – early 2nd century AD. There is a correlation of the finds with the remains of the funeral feasts associated with central female burials in the mounds. The penetration of amphoras to the nomads gives reason to assume that such vessels were in some demand among them and it was not by chance that large amphoras were brought to Thrace and Sarmatia. If this is so (and I cannot find another explanation), then such large vessels could have been specially made with a view to the Thracian and Sarmatian aristocracy. Of course, this was not the only way of penetration of large bronze amphoras to the Sarmatians. There are grounds to suggest that the large bronze amphoras could be acquired by the Sarmatians also during the Bosporan–Roman war in 45–49 AD.

The tin content of lead inclusions in ancient tin-bronze artifacts: a time-dependent process?

In antiquity, Pb was a common element added in the production of large bronze artifacts, especially large statues, to impart fluidity to the casting process. As Pb does not form a solid solution with pure Cu or with the Sn–Cu alloy phases, it is normally observed in the metal matrix as globular droplets embedded within or in interstitial positions among the crystals of Sn-bronze (normally the α phase) as the last crystallizing phase during the cooling process of the Cu–Sn–Pb ternary melt. The disequilibrium Sn content of the Pb droplets has recently been suggested as a viable parameter to detect modern materials [Shilstein, Berner, Feldman, Shalev & Rosenberg (2019). STAR Sci. Tech. Archaeol. Res. 5, 29–35]. The application assumes a time-dependent process, with a timescale of hundreds of years, estimated on the basis of the diffusion coefficient of Sn in Pb over a length of a few micrometres [Oberschmidt, Kim & Gupta (1982). J. Appl. Phys. 53, 5672–5677]. Therefore, Pb inclusions in recent Sn-bronze artifacts are actually a metastable solid solution of Pb–Sn containing ∼3% atomic Sn. In contrast, in ancient artifacts, unmixing processes and diffusion of Sn from the micro- and nano-inclusions of Pb to the matrix occur, resulting in the Pb inclusions containing a substantially lower or negligible amount of Sn. The Sn content in the Pb inclusions relies on accurate measurement of the lattice parameter of the phase in the Pb–Sn solid solution, since for low Sn values it closely follows Vegard's law. Here, several new measurements on modern and ancient samples are presented and discussed in order to verify the applicability of the method to the detection of modern artwork pretending to be ancient.

Analysis of the Artistic Characteristics of Type III Large Bronze Drums in Guangxi

Analysis of the Artistic Characteristics of Type III Large Bronze Drums in Guangxi

From the dilemma of Chinese nation branding and soft power to the performativity of creative power: The TAZARA Memorial Park and artistic intervention in Zambia

In this article I analyse the TAZARA Memorial Park in Zambia, which opened in 2022 and commemorates the Zambians, Tanzanians and Chinese who died while building the TAZARA Railway in the mid-twentieth century. Although the memorial is on Zambian soil and recalls a trinational history, it is largely driven by China as a form of Chinese nation branding and soft power. ‘International friendship’ typical of historic Afro-Asian solidarity permeates the memorial’s narratives, and is expressed through large bronze statues as well as museum dioramas, which have loaded museological histories. Zambia, however, was never a tabula rasa onto which this ‘friendship’ was simply imposed, and contemporary attempts to resuscitate historical solidarity are complex. Through interviews with Zambians who live close to the heritage site or worked on the construction of the railway, I demonstrate that there are multiple Zambian responses ranging from frustration and anger to deep feelings of camaraderie. Moving beyond the language of mainstream international relations, I embrace the performativity and generative creativity of culture itself, developing what I refer to as ‘creative power’. In doing so, I analyse two performative interventions that form part of the series, Tulelosha (‘We are mourning’) (2022–23), and which register the gaps and oversights of the memorial.

A new underwater laser cleaning tool for large bronze artefacts

A new underwater laser cleaning tool for large bronze artefacts

Resounding Patterns: The Melody of Chinese-Style Architecture in Eighteenth-Century Europe

Abstract: The essay examines the popularity of Chinese bells in diverse eighteenth–century European texts and chinoiseries. Both large bronze–cast bells and little chimes often appeared in descriptions of the Ming and Qing cities disseminated in the early modern period and were accompanied by discussion on the characteristics of Chinese music and the alleged physical or cultural factors that made the Chinese admire the sound of bells. Drawing on numerous historical sources in various European languages, the analysis focuses first on visual and written representations of bells included in scholarly treatises as well as travelers' accounts before unpacking how the sound of bells was imagined in Europe. Particular attention will be paid to the sensual properties of little chimes that adorned Chinese architecture. Finally, European imitations of such bells are written into the context of theoretical debates on the nature of the "Chinese Ear" and sensual properties of architecture.

Observations of Archaeological Proxies through Phenological Analysis over the Megafort of Csanádpalota-Juhász T. tanya in Hungary Using Sentinel-2 Images

This study aims to investigate potential archaeological proxies at a large Bronze Age fortification in Hungary, namely the Csanádpalota–Juhász T. tanya site, using open-access satellite data. Available Sentinel-2 images acquired between April 2017 and September 2022 were used. More than 700 images (727) were initially processed and filtered, accounting at the end of more than 400 (412) available calibrated Level 2A Sentinel images over the case study area. Sentinel-2 images were processed through image analysis. Based on pan-sharpened data, the visibility of crop marks was improved and enhanced by implementing orthogonal equations. Several crop marks, some still unknown, were revealed in this study. In addition, multi-temporal phenological observations were recorded on three archaeological proxies (crop marks) within the case study area, while an additional area was selected for calibration purposes (agricultural field). Phenological observations were performed for at least four complete phenological cycles throughout the study period. Statistical comparisons between the selected archaeological proxies were applied using a range of vegetation indices. The overall results indicated that phenological observations could be used as archaeological proxies for detecting the formation of crop marks.

The 2016–2017 excavation of the bronze foundry zone at the Guanzhuang site, Xingyang, Henan

Abstract The School of History, Zhengzhou University et al. excavated two bronze foundry zones in the northern part of the larger city at the Guanzhuang site in the summer of 2016 and the autumn of 2017. Archaeological features related to bronze casting were revealed, such as ash pits, wells, and sacrificial pits. A large number of casting artifacts were also retrieved, including clay molds, models, cores, furnace fragments, tuyeres, bronze knives, and whetstones. Judging from the characteristics of the clay molds and co-existing pottery artifacts, the bronze foundries dates to the early- and mid-Spring and Autumn period. A great variety of unearthed artifacts from the Guanzhuang bronze foundries, as well as the material repertoire for casting large bronze ritual vessels and coins, testify that the owner of the workshop could have enjoyed a high social status and possessed great wealth. This is of great importance for the understanding of the nature and function of the Guanzhuang site during the early- and mid-Spring and Autumn period.

The Strange Case of the Nuragic Offerers Bronze Statuettes: A Multi-Analytical Study

The Nuragic civilization (Sardinia, Italy, XVIII–VIII B.C) developed a flourishing bronze metallurgy with strong connections with other civilizations from the Mediterranean basin. Within the large bronze production, there are some peculiar representations of human figures, known in the archaeological environment of Sardinia as bronzetti, depicting warriors, priests, and offerers. In this paper, an interesting couple of Nuragic statuettes representing offerers, one from the Pigorini Museum in Rome and another from the Musei Reali in Turin, were analyzed. They have been investigated with X-ray fluorescence integrated with Monte Carlo simulations (XRF-MC). The combined methodology provides more accurate results, ranging from the structural characterization to the identification of the corrosion layers to the estimation of the composition of the alloy of the artifact. One of the most striking results regards the heads of the offerers: both heads are covered with a thick iron-based layer, even though the whole artifacts are made of a copper alloy. To understand the reason behind this peculiar corrosion patina, several hypotheses have been considered, including the possibility that these iron mineralizations are the consequence of an ancient superficial treatment, intending to confer a chromatic effect on the figurine’s head.

Antler arrowhead crafting at Zaoshugounao in the Guanzhong region: Implications for worked bone production in Bronze Age northern China

The analysis of worked animal remains from archaeological contexts can provide a window into animal resource exploitation, craft production, and social organization in ancient societies. The Guanzhong region, where the Shang-Zhou dynastic transition occurred, is key to understanding developing social complexity and early state formation in Bronze Age China. Previous research on worked animal remains from Bronze Age sites in the region has exclusively focused on urban centers of capital-level and village-size settlements. There is a lack of work on sites of a level in between. Here, we present a study of antler arrowhead production at Zaoshugounao, a large Bronze Age settlement in the Guanzhong region primarily occupied during approximately the 13th-10th centuries BCE. Our results show that the production of antler arrowheads at Zaoshugounao involved a relatively complete workflow. The spatial distribution of associated worked antlers further implies that the BIII excavation unit of the site, particularly Locale 3, was possibly a location specifically used for antler crafting. Bone working practices at Zaoshugounao, exemplified by antler arrowhead production, stood in contrast with those at contemporary capital cities and village sites, suggesting the existence of at least three patterns of worked bone production in the Guanzhong region and neighboring Central Plains during the late second and first millennium BCE. Our findings from Zaoshugounao contribute to a better understanding of animal resource exploitation and craft production in Bronze Age northern China around the time of the Shang-Zhou dynastic transition.

A Szent István Király Múzeum antropológiai gyűjteményének múltja, jelene és jövője röviden

The Anthropological Collection of the Szent István Király Museum in Székesfehérvár has grown into the third-largest anthropological collection in Hungary in the 50 years. The collection’s scientific importance is given not only by the sites, but also by the work of dr Kinga Éry. In the recent decades, several burials with outstanding archaeological and anthropological importance have been excavated, the human remains of these burials have been placed in Székesfehérvár. To give a few examples: the material of the urn cemetery of Kajászó, which is still expanding to this day found in this collection, and also the remains of the large Bronze Age cemetery at Dunaújváros, and the anthropological material of the famous Csákberény Avar cemetery. The late Roman-Germanic cemetery in Csákvár is also worth mentioning. The collection also includes the anthropological materials of the cemeteries found in the Tác/Gorsium area, which includes more than 1000 graves. After a short break, the scientific processing received a new impetus, and the anthropological material of Fejér County can be introduced to more and more forums.

A Technical Examination of the Great Bronzes of the Museo Nazionale Romano

ABSTRACT Creating large bronze statues is one of the boldest technological challenges faced by the makers of past material cultures. Investigation of these relatively uncommon artefacts relies on various methods such as visual observation, instrumental methods, and replica experiments. Most important is comparative observation, that is, observing the occurrence of a given technical feature in different statues. Having points of comparison is therefore crucial to investigate the technology of large bronze statuary. This paper aims at extending comparison possibilities by presenting and globally discussing the outcomes of the investigations that have taken place since the mid-1980s on the bronze statues of the Boxer at Rest and the Hellenistic Prince exhibited at the museum of Palazzo Massimo in Rome. Different aspects of the construction of the statues such as the preparation of the wax models, the casting sections, the welding, and the alloys are addressed. Whenever possible specific technical features are compared with similar ones observed in other statues. As often occurs in scientific research, a deeper knowledge of the artefacts has produced some answers and many additional questions.

Three is the Magic Number: Techniques and Materials of the Prestigious Anne de Montmorency Bronze Virtues

ABSTRACT A technical study of the three exceptional figures adorning the Monument of the Heart of Duke Anne de Montmorency commissioned in 1571 and attributed to the sculptors Barthélémy Prieur and Martin Lefort was carried out. This study includes X-radiography, alloy analysis, characterisation of the refractory core, visual observation of the interior and the exterior of the sculptures, as well as endoscopic examination of the interior. The objective of this study was to fill in further details regarding the fabrication of the figures: where and by whom they were made and how they were cast. In particular, the question of whether the foundryman Nicolas Péron carried out the casting of all three bronzes is addressed here. The results show significant consistency between the three figures, which were cast using a technique commonly employed during the sixteenth century in France, known as the lasagna process. Yet, several specific details linked to the monument commission – the use of chaplets and a sandy-clay mixture defined by a specific grain size distribution – shed light on the working relationship between artist and founder. While the conclusions of this study confirm Prieur’s leadership over the technical aspects of his sculptures, Lefort seems to have been less involved in the casting process and to have relied on the expertise of both Prieur and Péron. Furthermore, the results contribute to a better understanding of the casting of large bronzes during the second half of the sixteenth century by providing key information on the relationship between artists and founders.

The Literary and Legendary Lives of the Onoe Bell

AbstractDuring the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, a large eleventh-century bronze bell made in Korea became a grand attraction on the grounds of Onoe Shrine in Kakogawa, Japan. Although such bells are made of expensive material that require significant financial investment and technical skill, most are overlooked as common fixtures inside bell towers at Buddhist temples across Asia. Yet the bell at Onoe Shrine has a particularly complex and fascinating story to tell. Using object biography as an approach to study this unusual monument enables us to see how this bell became the popular subject of legends, travel-diary accounts, gazetteer entries, popular woodblock prints, and souvenirs made in a variety of materials. The bell's legendary life story accorded it the ability to solve human problems and use its voice to demand where it should be located, which fueled people's desire to see it with their own eyes and to make physical contact with it. This examination of the bell's intertwining life tales reveals how, after initially serving as a ritual object at a Korean Buddhist temple, it experienced dramatic transformations into a high-value export (or trafficked) commodity, Japanese poetic trope, shrine treasure, and tourist draw.

Suitability of Slower Growing Commercial Turkey Strains for Organic Husbandry in Terms of Animal Welfare and Performance.

Intensive turkey production with fast growing strains is often critically discussed regarding animal welfare problems. Studies evaluating the welfare status of both organic and less intensive selected turkey strains are limited, except in the slightly slower growing Kelly Broad Breast Bronze (Kelly). The aim of this study was to assess the welfare of turkeys from two strains with further decreased growth rate, Hockenhull Large Bronze (HoBr) and Hockenhull Black (HoBl), in comparison to Kelly under commercial organic conditions with 100% organic feed. Altogether 844 non-beak-trimmed male turkeys (274–288 per line) were reared and fattened in three replications with each six groups. On group level, use of resources in the 7, 16, and 25th week of life, mortality and feed conversion were recorded. Each bird was assessed with regard to plumage and skin condition as indicators of agonistic interactions, cannibalism and feather pecking, with regard to leg health, footpad, breast skin condition and, as performance indicators, live and carcass weight, utilization, daily weight gain and weights of valuable meat parts. The significantly slower growing HoBl showed slightly fewer malposition of the legs, reduced injury rates and less breast buttons, but a higher susceptibility to footpad dermatitis than Kelly turkeys. HoBr with a similar growth rate compared to Kelly had slightly more problems concerning walking ability and plumage damage, but also less breast buttons than Kelly turkeys. However, effect sizes were negligible (Φ < 0.10), except for the higher occurrence of footpad dermatitis and the reduced number of breast buttons in HoBl with small effect sizes (Φ = 0.20–0.24). Use of resources, prevalence of breast blisters and mortality, were not statistically different, although mortality rate was numerically lower in HoBl. Thus, for none of the studied strains clear benefits or disadvantages in terms of the birds' predisposition for welfare problems could be identified. Overall, prevalences of animal welfare problems were mostly lower than in comparable studies while performances were comparatively high. Therefore, turkeys from the studied strains appear to be suitable for organic rearing and fattening with 100% organic feed, given a good management.

The Economic Base of Early Bronze Age Hesi

ABSTRACT Tell el-Hesi is a large and important Early Bronze Age site located about 25 km east of Gaza. Much of this twenty-five-acre site was a single-period late EBIIIA fortified city. This makes the site unique in its region. These remains were one focus of excavation by the Joint Archaeological Expedition to Tell el-Hesi during its 1977, 1979, 1981, and 1983 seasons. Almost forty years of post-excavation analysis have yet to yield a final report, and now all original leaders in this research are either inactive or have died. The final effort of these researchers was to prepare this brief manuscript that provides their stratigraphic overview of the changing economic base that supported the EB city. This article represents the final thoughts of those who excavated the materials, and it will serve as the interpretive model to be tested as a new generation of scholars moves to publish the final report. Ultimately, they concluded that Hesi was constructed de novo along Wadi el-Hesi, which at that time was a flowing stream, the populace being supported by mixed herding and grain agriculture in which cattle played a key role. After some years, however, the stream’s flow declined, and cattle ceased to be a key element in the herds. They assumed that as herding declined grain production became increasingly important in supporting the economic well-being of the city.

Hazor rulership and ritual manipulation

ABSTRACT Hazor was unquestionably the largest Bronze Age Canaanite site, standing as an anomaly in the southern Levant in terms of its size, elaborate public architecture, special geopolitical stature and far-reaching international networks. While the site has been well established as an urban center with many temples, the use of each of Hazor’s temples and how they relate to one another remains unclear. In this study, we analyze the rituals and other activities that were conducted within Hazor’s numerous temples. The methodology we employ stresses, fundamentally, the necessity to contextualize objects within entire assemblages – through spatial analysis – to most accurately assess how Hazor’s cultic spaces were actually used. We apply the same methodology to other MB and LB Canaanite temples to establish a generalized ideal-type temple assemblage for Canaanite temples. This study successfully demonstrates that Hazor’s temples substantially diverge from the ideal temple assemblage, indicating cult at Hazor was practiced differently than elsewhere in the region. This includes the atypical distribution of certain cultic vessels (e.g. miniature vessels), the appearance of special vessels in ritual contexts (e.g. cups), and a fundamentally different use of indoor and outdoor spaces when compared to other Canaanite temples. It turns out that Hazor’s elites were major factors controlling the anomalies of cultic practice at the site. Hazor’s rulers impacted cultic architectural forms and locations and played instrumental roles in dictating and manipulating the types of rituals and associated cultic paraphernalia that were allowed to be performed and used throughout the entire settlement landscape.

14C-Dating of the Late Bronze Age City of Hala Sultan Tekke, Cyprus: Status Report

ABSTRACTHala Sultan Tekke is a large Bronze Age city located on the southeastern littoral of Cyprus. The city flourished from approximately 1650 BC to 1150 BC according to the archaeological evidence. Since 2010, Swedish excavations have exposed four new city quarters (CQ1–4) with three occupational phases, the 14C dating of which is of highest importance also for other contemporaneous cultures. The finds demonstrate vast intercultural connections in the Mediterranean and even with southern Scandinavia. In 2014, roughly 500 m to the east of CQ1, one of the richest cemeteries on the island was discovered. According to the archaeological evidence, the finds from the city date mainly to the 13th and 12th centuries BC. However, many of the wealthy tombs and the offering pits from the cemetery are considerably older with the oldest finds dating to the 16th century BC. This raises the question where the city quarters belonging to the oldest finds from the cemetery are situated. The radiocarbon (14C) dates from Hala Sultan Tekke have much influence on the dating of related sites because of numerous imports from a vast area. We present here new 14C data obtained in the course of the current excavations, which add to sets of already existing data.