Large Bronze Research Articles

Pektoralni nakit kod Liburna: odrazi mita o Sunčevu putovanju u liburnskoj kulturi

U radu se ikonografsko-semantički analiziraju dva velika brončana pektorala kod Liburna, iz Nina i Zatona – grob 6, simbolički utemeljena na mitu o Sunčevu putovanju i to kompozicijom dviju „ptičjih lađa“, dnevne i noćne/podzemne, i ikonografijom urezanih prizora, ponajprije „pričom“ na Sunčevu disku (Nin), u stilu „apstraktne naracije“. Mitska priča teče kroz tri vodoravne sfere svijeta: nebo – zemlja – podzemlje (?). Bit mita je ocrtan u gornjoj sferi složenim simbolom „križa u krugu/disku s četiri točke“ (Nin). Simbol govori da je svijet križno Suncem uređena cjelina u znaku broja četiri, podijeljena na četiri vremensko-prostorna dijela: s četvornim ritmom vremena i s rasprostiranjem u četiri pravca/odsječka. Kako je „križ u krugu s četiri točke“ središnji kôd religijske solarnosti tijekom (kasnog) brončanog i ranog željeznog doba, on se komparativno analizira u zajednicama od europskog Sjevera do Juga. Pektorali iz Nina i Zatona u ovom radu određeni su kao picenski kulturni element, no snažno integriran uliburnsku kulturu s obzirom na to da su se i Liburni i Piceni dugotrajno koristilisolarnim znakovima i simbolima u oblikovanju „ženskog“ i „muškog“ (posmrtnog)odijela.

Spectroscopic analysis of corrosion products in a bronze cauldron from the Late Iberian Iron Age

Selected bronze fragments unearthed at Cerro de la Cruz (Almedinilla, southern Spain) were analyzed to determine the chemical composition of the corrosion products formed on their surface. The fragments came from a large bronze cauldron used in an Iberian village that was devastated in the mid II century BCE — possibly around 141 BCE. The fragments were analyzed by using various instrumental techniques including electron scanning microscopy coupled to energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM–EDS), X-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectroscopy, and also by X-ray diffraction (XRD) and micro-Raman spectroscopy. Based on the results, being buried for a long time caused the main elements in the alloy to mineralize and form stratified layers consisting of various mineral phases including cuprite (Cu2O), malachite [Cu2CO3(OH)2] and cassiterite (Sn2O). The fragments also contained chloride and trihydroxychloride compounds such as nantokite (CuCl) and atacamite [Cu2Cl(OH)3], respectively, which make conservation of archaeological objects troublesome. These results testify to a strong interaction of the alloy elements with soil components. Also, the results obtained suggest a Type I of corrosion structure. Using the SEM–EDS, XRD and XRF and micro-Raman spectroscopies allowed corrosion products in the fragments to be successfully characterized in microchemical and structural.

Primer avance sobre el gran bronce celtibérico de Contrebia Belaisca (Botorrita, Zaragoza)

Se presenta en este trabajo una breve descripción arqueológica y cronológica del yacimiento de Contrebia Belaisca, incidiendo especialmente en los datos proporcionados por las campañas más recientes de excavaciones. Se ofrece una visión global del entorno histórico en que se encuadran los tres documentos escritos sobre bronce hallados en la ciudad, aportando nuevos datos arqueológicos sobre el hallazgo del primer texto celtibérico. El objetivo primordial es dar un avance sobre el gran bronce de Botorrita, aparecido en la campaña de excavaciones de 1992, comentando los datos que proporcionan las circunstancias de su descubrimiento y la lectura de algunos signos que se observaban a simple vista, antes de su limpieza.

Reconstructing God: Proposing a New Date for the West Mebon Visnu, Using Digital Reconstruction and Artefactual Analysis

Due to the vicissitudes of history, objects or artworks presenting for analysis are often worn or incomplete, and such is the case of the large bronze sculpture, West Mebon Viṣṇu, from the West Meb...

Provenance and identity of a large bronze statue currently in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York

A large bronze statue in the Metropolitan Museum in New York is currently identified as the emperor Trebonianus Gallus. According to an early account, it was excavated with many other statues in the remains of an ancient hall near San Giovanni in Laterano, Rome, in the early nineteenth century, but this story has recently been dismissed as probable invention. Here additional information is presented that lends credence to the traditional provenance and supports a proposal that the hall in question may have been in the headquarters of the imperial horseguard. New evidence is presented for the history of the statue, and that the identification as Trebonianus Gallus was made prior to its final sale. However an alternative is proposed which could explain various peculiarities of the piece: the emperor Maximinus I ‘Thrax’, reportedly a physical giant of a man.

Tombs and Offering Pits at the Late Bronze Age Metropolis of Hala Sultan Tekke, Cyprus

Hala Sultan Tekke is a large Bronze Age city close to the famous homonymous mosque near the international airport of Larnaca on the south coast of Cyprus. Previous research demonstrated that the ci...

A Multianalytical Approach for the Study on Manufacturing Process in Ancient Bronze Coffin From Luristan, Western Iran

In this study, a recently discovered metallic coffin from the Chubtarash village, near Khorramabad, Luristan area, western Iran is investigated to identify alloy composition and manufacturing process. It is a large metallic bathtub-like coffin in which a skeleton is found with two gold strips covering its eyes and mouth. The coffin has four metallic handles that are joined to the bathtub body with pins. The coffin has been made in one piece but has been broken into some pieces during burial time. For this study, two samples from different parts of the coffin were selected. They have been analyzed with inductively coupled plasma-mass spectroscopy (ICP-MS), scanning electron microscopy coupled with energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDS), and metallography methods to identify alloy composition and manufacturing process. Results of chemical analysis showed that the coffin is made of binary copper-tin alloy. Other elements such as Zn, Pb, and As are detected as minor components. In fact, these elements cannot be considered as the alloying constituent in the composition. The microstructure of bronze in scanning electron microscopy-backscattered electron (SEM-BSE) micrographs shows that the thick edge of the coffin has a two-phase microstructure including alpha matrix and eutectoid mixture, while thin body includes a single phase alpha solid solution. Further, it is visible that the bronze in the coffin is corroded heavily at the thin body area. Etched microstructure of the coffin includes equi-axed grains with twin lines and strain bands indicating application of a cycle of cold working and annealing to shape this large bronze coffin into one piece.

Pour une meilleure compréhension du procédé de soudage de la grande statuaire antique en bronze : analyses et modélisation expérimentale

Cet article présente l’avancement de nos recherches consacrées à l’étude technologique et à la modélisation expérimentale des assemblages soudés de la grande statuaire antique en bronze. La méthode adoptée et les résultats obtenus précisent le mécanisme de liaison, et conduisent à proposer une nouvelle dénomination du procédé : soudage par fusion au bronze liquide. Nous mettons aussi en évidence l’importance de la préparation au soudage, et une typologie de la forme des joints soudés est ébauchée. Nous présentons enfin les derniers développements des examens par ultrasons qui offrent à terme la perspective de tomographies à l’aide d’instruments portables sur le lieu même de conservation des œuvres.

X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy and Monte Carlo characterization of a unique nuragic artifact (Sardinia, Italy)

The chemical composition of a unique bronze artifact known as the “Cesta” (“Basket”) belonging to the ancient Nuragic civilization of the Island of Sardinia, Italy has been analyzed by combining X-ray Fluorescence Spectroscopy (XRF) with Monte Carlo simulations using the XRMC code. The “Cesta” had been discovered probably in the XVIII century with the first graphic representation reported around 1761. In a later draft (dated 1764), the basket has been depicted as being carried upside-down on the shoulder of a large bronze warrior Barthélemy (1761), Pinza (1901), Winckelmann (1776) . The two pictorial representations differed only by the presence of handles in the most recent one. XRF measurements revealed that the handles of the object are composed by brass while the other parts are composed by bronze suggesting the handles as being a later addition to the original object. The artifact is covered at its surface by a fairly thick corrosion patina. In order to determine the bronze bulk composition without the need for removing the outer patina, the artifact has been modeled as a two layer object in Monte Carlo simulations.

Casting cores of French bronze statues of the 16th and 17th centuries: Identification of regional practices and artistic choices

What can the chemical and petrofabric study of casting cores of early modern large bronzes tell us about the practices of sculptors and foundry men? The technical study of 23 major large French bronzes dated from the 16th and 17th centuries provides some answers. These include three prestigious royal commissions, namely two of the six bronzes copied by Primaticcio from the marble models of the Belvedere for Francis I, two of the six statues from the funeral monument of Henry II and Catherine de Medicis, and the three bronzes from the heart monument of Constable Anne de Montmorency. Among the investigations carried out (alloy composition, X-ray radiography, and so on) [1], the chemical and petrographic analysis of the refractory cores sampled from inside the statues has proved to be crucial. Surprisingly, this approach is far from systematically applied in the field, despite some successful results [2] including the pioneering work of C. Reedy [3]. This paper introduces the new methodology of casting core analysis developed at the C2RMF. Results obtained from a large corpus of French bronze statues will be described, illustrating the complementary role of core analysis alongside the informative potential of metal analysis and the characterization of casting technique through multivariate technological studies. During the 16th and 17th centuries in France, casting cores were generally created from a sandy clay material with a variable addition of organic. The results of the study cast light on two aspects of the nature of the cores. On the one hand, the bulk chemical compositions of cores and mineralogical composition of added sand show a relatively good homogeneity within the region of Paris and its surroundings, thus testifying to a similar provenance of raw materials. Conversely, significant variations were evident in compositions from other regions. Consequently, the casting cores constitute an excellent regional marker. On the other hand, significant variations were observed in the size distributions of aplastic inclusions, thus witnessing local foundry know-how through the use of several sandy–clayey mixtures.

Et monumentalt midtsulehus ved Nørre Holsted i Sydjylland

Et monumentalt midtsulehus ved Nørre Holsted i Sydjylland

The Tintignac carnyx: An acoustical study of an early brasswind instrument

The carnyx was a metal wind instrument used by Celtic peoples around two thousand years ago. It was approximately two meters long with a bell in the shape of an animal head. In 2004, an excavation at Tintignac in the Corrèze district of France uncovered a horde of bronze instruments, including parts of several carnyxes. It proved possible to assemble an almost complete carnyx from these parts, and in 2011, a copy of this carnyx was made in brass by Jean Boisserie. The acoustical behavior of the brass copy was studied by Joel Gilbert and colleagues at the Université du Maine in Le Mans; this work led to the proposal that the musical performance of the instrument would be improved if an additional section of tubing was included in the reconstruction. Later, Boisserie made a second copy in bronze, together with several optional extension pieces. The musical performing possibilities of the bronze copy have been studied by the musician John Kenny, and its acoustical behavior has been studied at the University of Edinburgh. The results of these studies, including measurements of sound radiation by the large bronze ears attached to the head, are presented and discussed.

Sovereignty and the Materiality of Caliphal Encounters

This essay focuses on two tenth-century bronze objects, a basin and a bowl, inscribed with an epigraphic band that can be read as the repetition of the Arabic word for sovereignty, al-mulk. These objects were probably made in the area that now comprises Iran and Central Asia, an artistic, intellectual, and commercial center of the Islamic lands in the ninth and tenth centuries. Bronzes like these, luxury commodities that would have appeared gold when new, are rarely found outside Iran and Central Asia (Allan; Baer). Yet those I discuss here were discovered far from their likely region of origin—indeed, at opposite ends of the Islamic territories of Eurasia. The large bronze basin was discovered in Inner Mongolia, while the small bronze bowl was unearthed in Córdoba, in southern Spain. These inscribed objects hint at a transhemispheric cultural-political history that has implications for reigning narratives of modernity, including for those that relate to medieval studies.

Dong Son Imprints in the South of Vietnam (research summary)

In the paper, the author reviews the most recent important archaeological discoveries with Dong Son bronze drums (Heger I) found from Highlands (Kontum, Gia Lai, DakLak, Lam Dong provinces), Southern Part of Central Vietnam (Quang Nam, Quang Ngai, Binh Dinh, Phu Yen, Khanh Hoa provinces) and Southern Vietnam (Binh Dương, Binh Phuoc, Ba Ria-Vung Tau, Ben Tre, Kien Giang provinces). The author points out “key sites” in the South Vietnam – the typical sites and artifacts most lively showing “the convergance of Indigenous - Exogenous culture” in ancient villages, workshops for metallurgy, cemeteries, treasures, etc., which are related to the Dong Son and other inhabitants of the protohistorical epoch in Vietnam and Southeast Asia and beyond. There are Cemeteries or Tresors which contained Bronze Dong Son drums (Heger I type), bronze halberds (Ko), Western Han mirrors, Indian Nephrite or Glass and Golden Ornaments – artifacts not only representing the multi-linear relationship of the owners of Southern Vietnam with other Asian centres, but also were considered to be the symbol of power, authority, potential of military and polical function, social ranks and they reflected the unpeaceful situation of the contemporary society. The author emphasizes the very appearance of these Dongson drums as shown with 2 subtypes of Bronze Drum Collections: Original Dong Son (Heger I) Bronze Drum Collection and Imitative Bronze Drum Collection which was created according to "Dongsonian Style" thousands of years ago. The author emphasizes the very early appearance of the “exogenous” elements of culture-technique-art-religion in Southern Vietnam, which were adapted or completely modified to match the knowledge and psychology, aesthetic needs, and “Indigenous” beliefs – especially clear in traditional funeral concept thousands of years ago, as shown with distinction in “chiefdom cemetery”. Finallly, the author generalized data related to Bronze metallurgy at the Southern Vietnam area and came to some following remarks: 1/ Nam Bo - Vietnam was the early centre of Bronze Metallurgy at the Mainland Asia in the Proto-history, with the technology of casting in sandstone moulds. 2/ This Bronze casting industry together with its copper and alloy materials probably came from “Native land of Dong Son culture” – the “Bronze Triangle” or “Bronze Quadrilateral”: Dong Son – Yunnan – Guangxi – Guangdong – Khorat. Through various ways: directly via the East Sea to the South of Vietnam or indirectly through roads – via Sa Huynh cultural area and Tay Nguyen (Highlands) along the Mekong River to the South of Vietnam in the end. 3/ However, the southern metallurgy had their “own features” that were considered “non-Dong Son” by the author. The big and sophisticated bronze products such as Dong Son drums (Heger I type) or Chinese halberd (Ko or halberd), Art figurines such as statues of a pangolin (Manis javanica) or Amulets, statues depicting a dog chasing another animal, etc. only appeared in the Early Iron Age. Apart from some exotic intact goods such as Dong Son drums from Son Tinh, Daglao, Ben Tre, Bu Dang etc. and Western Han mirrors from Binh Yen, Go Dua, Phu Chanh, Kem Nac, most of the bronze products in the Early Iron Age in the South of Vietnam were cast on site, with their own characteristics that were “non-Dong Son” and “non-Chinese”. 4/ According to the author, the large bronze object like Dong Son – styled drums or “Ko” appeared a lot here to the regalia expressing power of the Bigmen (the leaders) in the early historical period in the South of Vietnam and they were just replaced in the early Christian Era under the influence of Indian civilization – process by which French scholars call “Hinduism” and “Buddhism”.

Casting cores used to craft large bronze masterpieces of the Florentine Renaissance and Mannerism

We investigated the casting cores of twelve large bronze masterpieces of the Florentine Renaissance and Mannerism (artworks by Ghiberti, Donatello, Verrocchio, Rustici, and Danti). Materials were characterized in their mineralogical-petrographic features, chemical composition, organic content and fossil traces.The results achieved provide information on the main recipes employed for manufacturing the casting cores, which largely agree with written sources of the time, and shed light on the art foundry processes between the 15th–16th centuries. The data collected point out a pronounced affinity of natural raw materials used in all the casting cores investigated, consisting in silty-sandy clays with a suitable natural fine-grained temper component. A large use of organic fibres and matters of both animal and vegetal origin and a minor use of gypsum in selected workshops (Rustici, Verrocchio) were highlighted. Textural analyses allowed gaining information on direct vs indirect methods of casting, while firing temperatures up to about 1000 °C were estimated from mineralogical and microstructural observations. Despite the strong similarities, significant differences among the various samples analysed were pointed out, providing some initial analytical clues that suggest different practices in separate workshops. Finally, the whole petrographic, geochemical and paleontological data gave information on the provenance of the clayey raw materials.This work represents the first step of a systematic approach to the classification of the core materials used in Florentine foundries along the centuries and shows the significant contribution the petrographic analyses can provide to the interpretation of the execution processes of large bronzes.

Ultrasonic phased array contribution to the knowledge of the flow fusion welding process used to make the Roman large bronze statues

Recent archeometallurgical studies have shown that Greek and Roman large bronze statues were not cast in one piece, in spite of an exceptional mastering of the lost-wax techniques, but resulted from the welding of several parts previously cast. The ancient welding process proved to be very spectacular: liquid bronze (secondary casting) of the same composition as the base metal (primary casting) was directly poured between the two parts to be joined. We have recently shown that the mechanism involved is similar to the one involved in some modern fusion welding techniques such as arc, laser beam or oxy-fuel, which demonstrates the very high level of knowledge achieved by Greek and Roman foundrymen in the control of high-temperature processes. Twenty-one centuries later, high level of non-destructive testing (NDT) expertise is particularly being needed for archeometallurgical examinations of the statues, not only to describe the welding mechanism, but also to identify several variants of the process (particularly concerning the welding preparation). This paper explains how NDT, and particularly ultrasonic phased array, have brought decisive clues to understand the flow fusion welding process applied to the “Captive Gallic”, a statue found in 2007 during excavation in the Rhone River in Arles (Southern France).

Writing with an Ear to the Ground: The Armenian Genocide's "Stubborn Murmur"

Writing with an Ear to the Ground: The Armenian Genocide's "Stubborn Murmur"

Modernisation des temples bouddhiques et société locale : le Nanzō-in de Sasaguri

This paper studies the modernization of a Buddhist temple, Nanzō-in located at Sasaguri town, Fukuoka prefecture in Kyūshū, and its socio-religious relationship with the local society. This temple belongs to the Shingon sect and is the first stop of the 88 pilgrimage sites, fudasho, replicas of the Shikoku Reijyō based upon Kōbō Daishi belief. According to legend, Sasaguri pilgrimage sites had been founded in 1835, and they flourished until the Meiji Restoration in 1868. According to the Meiji government's political order of the separation of Buddhism and deity belief, the socio-religious system of pilgrimage in Sasaguri had radically changed and gradually declined. Local people introduced the new idea of making requests to the headquarters of the Shingon sect located at Mt. Kōya. In 1898, Nanzō-in temple has migrated to Sasaguri and was afforded the supreme status of pilgrimage site. During the Meiji period, Nanzō-in was supported by local society and outsiders, including laborers of the coal-mining industry, so that this temple eventually passed through the process of modernization. The main topics of this paper are the history of temple, socio-economic background, the change in belief systems, the leadership of the main monk, and the transformation of the relationship between the temple and local society. Nanzō-in temple is a complicated religious site, comprising a main temple, Daishi-dō dedicated to the religious founder, small shrines, a large statue of Fudō-myōō and stone images of numerous bodhisattvas. We discuss radical changes in the temple's character from the supplication and prayer in this world to the appeasing of dead spirits in the other world. After the construction of the large bronze image of the 'Lying Buddha' in 1995, Nanzō-in transformed itself into a commercial temple and focused on conducting religious services for the storage hall of the bones of the dead, the nōkotsudō. This is a new business for the temple. Nanzō-in encompasses various believers from ascetics to pilgrims and is beginning to align itself with the 'Engaged Buddhism' movement. This study will highlight the 'invention of tradition' and modernization of Buddhism supported by the local society to establish the function of the temple's social capital. In conclusion, we discuss the negotiation of external and internal society and its inhabitants.

Augustus Saint-Gaudens’sThe Puritan

Dedicated in 1887 in Springfield, Massachusetts, The Puritan is a large bronze statue of a menacing figure clutching a huge Bible. Commissioned as a memorial to Deacon Samuel Chapin (1595–1675), The Puritan was designed by Augustus Saint-Gaudens and erected in an urban park surrounded by factories and tenements. After repeated vandalism, it was moved “uphill” to Springfield’s cultural quadrangle in 1899. Contextualizing The Puritan in geographic and affective terms, this essay argues that the statue’s public disavowal was conditioned by Saint-Gaudens’s general disdain for New England’s seventeenth-century founding fathers and in particular their fraught relationships with American Indians.

Vulcan's forge in Venus' City: the story of bronze in Venice, 1350-1650

I. The Significance of Bronze II. State Control of the Bronze Industry III. The State Bronze Foundries IV. The Independent Bronze Foundries V. The Employment of State Gun-Founders VI. The Employment of Independent Founders VII. Bells VIII. Large Functional Bronzes IX. Large Bronze Sculpture X. Small Bronze Sculpture and Artefacts Appendix: Corpus of Selected Documents