Early traumatic events, such as maltreatment (i.e., abuse and/or neglect) or exposure to violence, are associated with wide-ranging impacts on children's development, including their language skills. The purpose of this review was to determine the current state of knowledge in the area of children's language development in the context of childhood trauma; how the type, timing, and duration of trauma affect language outcomes; and what other individual, family, or community factors are considered in the literature. A scoping review was carried out to identify relevant literature related to language, trauma, and childhood. The initial database search yielded 5,253 articles, and 115 studies were included in the final sample. Literature in the areas of maltreatment, refugee experiences, institutionalization, adversity, homelessness and eviction, harsh punishment, and community violence were represented. Language difficulties were reported across the included trauma types; among the types of maltreatment, neglect was shown to have the greatest impact on language outcomes. In general, earlier age of onset, longer duration, and greater severity of trauma were associated with more severe language difficulties. Individual, family, and community variables reported in the literature are also discussed, and gaps in the literature are identified. These findings underscore the pressing need for speech-language pathologists to consider the multifactorial nature of language development in the context of trauma and for the implementation of trauma-informed practices. Recommendations for future research are presented. https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.31014589.

Unpacking the Multidimensional Nature of EFL Speaking Difficulties: A Holistic Framework of Learner-Centered Needs. Speaking is a critical yet challenging skill for EFL learners due to its spontaneous nature, real-time processing, and high emotional demands. This study explores the individual challenges that students face in learning to speak English and how these affect their classroom participation and language development. Objectives: The study aims to examine the challenges that students encounter while learning to speak English and how these challenges influence their classroom participation and language development. Methods: Drawing on key theories of communicative competence, the Affective Filter Hypothesis, and pragmatic competence, this research employed a qualitative descriptive design, including open-ended questionnaires and semi-structured interviews with 25 university students enrolled in a speaking class. Findings: Thematic analysis revealed five interrelated dimensions of difficulty: (1) linguistic challenges, especially vocabulary and grammar limitations; (2) psychological barriers, including anxiety, fear of negative evaluation, and lack of confidence; (3) the impact of classroom environment and activity design on comfort and performance; (4) learners’ topic preferences, where familiar and casual themes are favored over abstract or technical subjects; and (5) the importance of pedagogical support, such as collaborative tasks, smaller group settings, and constructive feedback. Conclusion: The findings underscore that speaking difficulties are not merely linguistic but are deeply influenced by affective and contextual factors. Students benefit most from interactive, low-pressure environments that allow gradual confidence-building. The study concludes by recommending a more student-centered approach to speaking instruction—one that acknowledges individual learner differences, promotes meaningful interaction, and fosters both communicative competence and psychological readiness. These insights can guide teachers in designing more inclusive and engaging speaking classes that empower learners to participate actively and confidently. Keywords: EFL speaking challenges, communicative competence, affective filter, classroom interaction, learner confidence.

This paper investigates the construction of an immersive English learning ecosystem informed by Second Language Acquisition (SLA) theories. With the rapid globalization of English, traditional language learning models have proven inadequate in meeting the demands for effective, real-world communication. The proposed immersive ecosystem integrates modern educational technologies, such as AI and multimedia tools, to simulate real-life language environments. The paper examines the mechanisms of language development within this ecosystem, focusing on the application of SLA theories to enhance language proficiency, motivation, and cross-cultural communication. A mixed-methods approach, including experimental research, case studies, and surveys, was employed to assess the impact of this ecosystem on learners' English abilities. The findings suggest that an immersive learning ecosystem significantly improves students’ language acquisition, motivation, and cultural awareness.

This study analyzes efforts to develop and foster the Indonesian language through the use of standard and nonstandard words at MTS Bahlul Ulum. The increasing use of nonstandard words among students, influenced by social media and cross-regional interactions, has led to a decline in the awareness of using standard language in academic contexts. A descriptive qualitative approach was used with teachers and students of Class VII H at MTS Bahlul Ulum during the first semester of the 2025/2026 academic year. Data were collected through observation, interviews, and documentation of Student Worksheet (LKPD) results containing 50 questions on standard and nonstandard words. The findings showed that before the language development program, students had an average score of 62.4 in understanding standard and nonstandard words, with errors in commonly used informal words like vidio (standard: video) and antri (standard: antre). After the program, which included class discussions, conversation simulations, and interactive worksheets, the average score increased to 78.6, with 82% of students scoring above 78. The error rate decreased from 45% to 18%, indicating that interactive and contextual language development is effective. Continuous training and curriculum integration are essential to strengthening the use of standard language in the digital era.

This pilot randomized controlled trial examined the feasibility, acceptability, and preliminary effectiveness of a telehealth-based Pivotal Response Treatment (TPRT) program for preschool children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) in Taiwan, where access to evidence-based, parent-mediated interventions remains limited in underserved communities. Fifty children aged 24-72 months were randomly assigned to either the intervention group, which received a 12-week therapist-guided TPRT program, or the control group receiving general parent support. Parents in the TPRT group attended weekly online coaching sessions and practiced the strategies daily at home. After the 12-week intervention, all participants entered a 4-week follow-up phase, during which TPRT parents independently practiced and applied the learned strategies in daily routines without therapist supervision, allowing evaluation of their autonomous use and short-term maintenance of treatment effects. Post-intervention assessments at the end of the follow-up evaluated child developmental outcomes and parental stress. Compared with controls, the TPRT group showed significantly greater improvements in language and motor development, with medium-to-large effect sizes in adaptive functioning, particularly in daily living and motor domains. Parenting stress significantly decreased, with most parents reporting reduced distress and improved perceptions of child behavior. Program adherence was high (88% daily strategy use, 85% homework completion), and parental satisfaction averaged 93%. The TPRT program was feasible, well accepted, and associated with meaningful developmental and parental benefits. Findings support the promise of telehealth-delivered, parent-mediated PRT as a scalable model to improve service accessibility for young children with ASD in underserved settings.

This study examines the relationship between language development risks and social and behavioral functioning, specifically externalizing problems (EPs), internalizing problems (IPs), and social competence (SC), among bilingual Latinx youth. We used a community-based sample of 129 bilingual Latinx youth and their caregivers from a large urban city in the U.S. South. Participants completed standardized parent- and child-report measures in Spanish and English to assess developmental language disorder (DLD) risk and social and behavioral concerns (SBCs), and children completed assessments of their narrative skills in English and Spanish. Fisher's exact tests were used to assess differences in SBC identification and bootstrap tests to examine differences in SBC scores between youth with and without DLD risks. Multiple regression analyses were employed to explore the association of children's narrative skills in each language with SBCs, controlling for key demographics. Youth with DLD risk were more likely to have clinically significant IP, based on Youth Self-Report. Youth at risk of DLD reported higher levels of IP in both parent- and self-reports, but there were no significant differences for EP and SC. Regression analyses revealed low but statistically significant associations between Spanish narrative skills and lower parent-reported SC and low but statistically significant English narrative skills and higher self-reported SC. Bilingual Latinx youth with DLD may experience IP across multiple settings, making self-reports more sensitive to capturing the relations between IP and DLD risks. Oral narration skills showed small but significant associations with SC, suggesting a potential role in social functioning. These findings highlight the importance of including community-based samples to understand better the diverse experiences of youth that might not be represented in clinical settings.

Introduction This study investigates the impact and mechanisms of screen media use on early language development in preschoolers. Methods Via questionnaires with 516 parents of 3-6-year-olds in China, we examined children’s screen exposure and early literacy levels, then constructed a model to explore parental media intervention as a mediator. Results Results showed: entertainment-based screen activities significantly negatively predicted early literacy, while educational use had a weak positive correlation; entertainment activities indirectly affected literacy through parental intervention, with mediating effects ranked as restrictive > educational active > caretaking active intervention. Discussion Findings reveal how technology and family microsystems influence early literacy, offering tailored guidance for parents on screen use.

Language development is significantly shaped by a learner’s personality characteristics. Due to the rise of the role of positive psychology in education, the interest in the study of the psychological constructs has influenced language instruction. In the English as a Foreign Language (EFL) context, an investigation into the relationship between academic perfectionism and foreign language engagement is essential to enhance educators’ understanding of the role of personality traits in foreign language education. This correlational study investigates the relationship between EFL learners' academic perfectionism and their foreign language engagement. It also assesses whether these variables statistically and significantly differ in terms of gender, department, and years of learning English. The study consists of 275 EFL learners of a foundation university in Türkiye. Gathering of data entails “Academic Perfectionism Scale”, “Language Learner Engagement Scale” and “Personal Information Form”. The independent samples t-test, one-way ANOVA and Pearson correlation test were used in the analysis of the data. The findings show that EFL learners’ academic perfectionism was not found to be associated with their foreign language engagement. Additionally, academic perfectionism and foreign language engagement among EFL learners showed a significant difference based on gender, whereas department and years of learning English had no role in academic perfectionism and foreign language engagement.

Children with CHD are at increased risk for feeding difficulties, yet the prevalence and predictors of paediatric feeding disorder in this population remain underexplored. To evaluate the prevalence of paediatric feeding disorder and identify consistent predictors of feeding difficulties in children with CHD 18-<25 months of age. A retrospective review was conducted on 159 children diagnosed with CHD. Paediatric feeding disorder was defined using consensus criteria encompassing nutritional status and feeding skill domains. Feeding outcomes were assessed at 18-<25 months, regardless of the method of feeding (oral or tube-fed). Medical history, growth, and neurodevelopmental status were analysed to identify predictors of paediatric feeding disorder. At 18-<25 months, 58% of children met criteria for paediatric feeding disorder. Among exclusively orally fed children, 41% still qualified, indicating persistent dysfunction beyond tube dependence. Significant challenges were observed in nutrition and feeding skill domains. One-third relied on formula and overnight feeds, reflecting high energy needs and possibly inefficiencies. While 74% had transitioned to cup drinking, 21% struggled, particularly those born preterm or with neurodevelopmental delays. Texture progression was delayed: 29% had no table foods, and among those who did, 67% had chewing difficulties. Predictors of paediatric feeding disorder included medical/genetic comorbidities, low weight, prolonged hospitalisation, low maternal education, and delays in cognitive, language, and motor development. Paediatric feeding disorder is highly prevalent in children with CHD, including those feeding orally. Early risk factors are associated with domain-specific feeding challenges, emphasising the need for individualised, developmentally informed feeding and nutrition care plans in this high-risk population.

Caregiver-child interactions reflect an important dynamic that supports spoken language development in deaf and hard-of-hearing (DHH) children. This study examined how child effortful control interacts with caregiver language and parenting stress to affect child expressive language. Fifty-nine DHH children (mean age=5;9) and their primary caregiver participated in a play interaction where expressive language was measured. Caregivers completed questionnaires measuring child effortful control and parenting stress. When caregivers used higher quality language, DHH children demonstrated stronger expressive language regardless of effortful control level compared to when caregivers used lower quality language. Additionally, a trend suggested DHH children with higher effortful control showed stronger expressive language skills when parenting stress was low. However, this trend was not observed when caregivers reported greater levels of parenting stress. These findings support the need to investigate caregiver characteristics that support DHH children in leveraging their inherent regulatory abilities to achieve better language outcomes.

This study aims to examine the implementation of differentiated instruction combined with flashcard media in supporting the language development of children with special needs at TK Kartika I-II Aceh Besar. A descriptive qualitative approach with a case study design was employed, involving three children diagnosed with ADHD, communication disorders, and Down syndrome, along with two classroom teachers. Data were collected through participatory observation and in-depth interviews. The findings reveal that this integrative instructional approach promoted increased participation, vocabulary acquisition, and communicative responsiveness in the children. Previously passive children began to use visual cues, repeat simple words, and showed improved focus during learning activities. The study highlights the importance of language-focused, individualized interventions in inclusive education, especially for children with special needs who are accepted in mainstream schools. It recommends the integration of differentiated instruction and concrete visual media as effective methods for enhancing equitable language learning opportunities within the implementation of the Merdeka Curriculum in inclusive early childhood education settings. Keywords: Language Development; Differentiated Instruction; Flashcards; Special Needs Education; Inclusive Learning; Early Childhood Education; Merdeka Curriculum

This study examines the impact of interactive educational platforms powered by artificial intelligence (AI)—such as Duolingo Kids, Lingokids, ABCmouse, and other adaptive tools like Smartick Lectura, Read Along, and Amira—on language and literacy development in early childhood. The analysis was conducted through a narrative review of the state of the art, aiming to identify, analyze, and synthesize recent findings regarding the use of AI in this field. The results extracted from the specialized literature highlight the potential of these tools to personalize learning by adapting to each child’s pace and level through technologies such as natural language processing and voice recognition. Furthermore, the integration of gamification and interactivity fosters greater motivation and active engagement among learners. These platforms also show strong inclusive potential by offering adaptive solutions for children with special educational needs and for those in low-resource environments. Overall, this analysis demonstrates that AI-based platforms represent an effective innovation for strengthening language and literacy skills in young children, provided that the identified barriers are responsibly addressed to ensure successful implementation in diverse educational settings

This study investigates the effect of smart learning tools on fostering the English-speaking skills of EFL students who are enrolled in the applied English programs at Hebron University. A one-group pretest-posttest design was used in this mixed-methods study to assess improvements in vocabulary, pronunciation, fluency, tone, and intonation. The participants consisted of 24 first-year female students enrolled in the newly established Applied English specialization within the Faculty of Sciences and Applied Professions. Over a ten-week period, students employed various smart learning technologies, including AI-driven programs (SmallTalk2Me, Duolingo), instructional channels on TikTok and Snapchat, and multilingual learning applications, in conjunction with their major curriculum, Real 2: Listening and Speaking. Quantitative data were obtained using the EF SET speaking test and a Likertscale perception questionnaire, while qualitative insights were gathered from open-ended student remarks. Results indicate substantial enhancement in essential speaking competencies such as tone, intonation, vocabulary, and fluency, accompanied by elevated levels of motivation, engagement, and connection with digital learning resources. The findings highlight the educational potential of incorporating technology-driven smart learning into EFL training to promote independent and interactive language development.

This research discusses the abbreviations of words used on Twitter (X) by Gen Z. This study aims to analyze the categorization and functions of abbreviations used by Generation Z on the Twitter (X) platform. This research is based on theories of Schendl (2001) and Jakobson (1960). The study employs a qualitative descriptive method with a thematic analysis design, analyzing screenshot-based textual data. The findings indicate that the dominant type of abbreviation is Initialism, totalling 20 instances, which is defined as an abbreviation where each letter is pronounced separately. This is followed by Clipping, which consists of 10 instances and refers to a shortened form of a word. Blends recorded the same frequency, 10 instances, referring to words formed by combining two or more words. Next, Acronyms appeared 7 instances, defined as abbreviations pronounced as regular words. Lastly, Contractions were found in 3 instances, referring to two words combined into one using an apostrophe (’). This study not only identifies patterns of digital language development among Generation Z but also contributes academically to current digital linguistics studies. These findings enrich our understanding of how social media communication practices influence language change, especially in the use of word abbreviations. In addition, this study has significant social implications, particularly in efforts to improve digital literacy and to design communication strategies better suited to the characteristics of the younger generation in the technological era.

ABSTRACT Language development in bilingual children presents a complex and fascinating area of study, especially regarding syntactic acquisition in understudied language pairings like English and Indonesian. This case study explores the syntactic development of Kaka, a six-year-old sequential bilingual child (English L1, Indonesian L2) living in an Indonesian-speaking environment. Data were collected using naturalistic observation and structured interviews, then analysed using Mean Length of Utterance (MLU) and qualitative structural analysis. Addressing the research questions regarding syntactic manifestation and dominance, the results show that Kaka's English MLU (9.29) exceeds the monolingual age norm, while her Indonesian MLU (6.17) remains lower. Dominant syntactic structures were found in English, with evident cross-linguistic influence (CLI) from English to Indonesian, manifested as unnatural grammatical constructions (e.g. redundant plural markers). By applying Brown’s Order of Acquisition and the Usage-Based Theory framework, this study refines existing theories by demonstrating that in sequential bilingualism, strong L1 dominance established through consistent home input can dictate the direction of syntactic transfer (L1 to L2) and override the influence of the societal language environment. Finally, the study proposes a preliminary conceptual framework for early sequential bilingual syntactic development, offering a new theoretical lens for understanding syntactic transfer in typologically distinct language pairs.

Teaching English to students with co-occurring blindness and Autism requires specialized, multisensory approaches due to their unique cognitive, sensory, and social challenges. The present study, conducted during the 2024–2025 academic year, examines the effectiveness of a multisensory instructional methodology grounded in Self-Determination Theory, Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory, Universal Design for Learning, Ecological Systems Theory, and Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory. The study involved a sample of 22 students attending a Special Primary School for the Blind. Using a mixed-methods research design, the factors that enhance language learning, autonomy, and educational engagement were investigated. The findings indicate that the use of tactile and auditory tools, interdisciplinary collaboration, predictable routines, parental involvement, sensory adaptations, and opportunities for social interaction significantly improve language development and social inclusion. The study concludes by proposing measures such as strengthening technological accessibility, providing targeted teacher training, developing adapted instructional materials, and implementing inclusive special education policies.

ABSTRACTThe comprehension–production vocabulary gap is a well‐documented hallmark of language development; however, anecdotal evidence suggests that this asymmetry may be reduced in children with Williams syndrome (WS). Here, we use empirical data to characterise the comprehension–production gap and computational modelling to investigate potential mechanisms underlying this distinctive linguistic profile, focusing on children aged 7 months to 6 years. Using parental reports (Communicative Development Inventories), we measured the receptive and expressive vocabularies of children with WS (n = 67) and compared them to typically developing children (n = 1210) and cross‐syndrome groups with Down syndrome (n = 27), and fragile X syndrome (n = 15). Results confirm that children with WS show a unique trajectory: alongside general delay, they exhibit a significantly reduced comprehension–production asymmetry not observed in other groups. To elucidate the potential origins of this phenomenon, we implemented a biologically inspired neural network—self‐organising map (SOM)—to model early word learning and evaluate visual and auditory map representations. Our findings reveal that WS‐like vocabulary patterns can emerge from selective difficulties in visual processing, leading to exemplar‐based rather than prototype‐based object representations. The model suggests that these visual processing challenges, consistent with known visuospatial difficulties in WS, may contribute to the atypical comprehension–production relationship, while broader processing constraints may underlie general delays. This study provides a mechanistic account of vocabulary development in WS, highlighting the role of visual constraints in shaping lexical outcomes. More broadly, it underscores the need to conceptualise language development as an interaction between sensory input and cognitive subsystems, explaining why the comprehension–production gap is not a uniform feature of language acquisition.

This prologue introduces the Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools forum, Addressing Childhood Trauma and Maltreatment Through the Lens of the ICF. The goals of the forum are twofold: first, to draw attention to the prevalence of children who have experienced trauma and maltreatment and how it affects their language and literacy development, and second, to provide an overview of the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF) framework and how it can be used to conceptualize assessment procedures and tailor interventions to meet the individual needs of the child while providing compassionate trauma-informed care. This prologue provides an overview of the prevalence of childhood trauma and how it affects children's language and literacy development. By extension, this prologue also underscores why speech-language pathologists (SLPs) should carefully consider this topic. Importantly, SLPs treat children in context, and although other professionals such as psychologists or social workers are the professionals expected to provide direct services in this area, SLPs still have an obligation to provide compassionate trauma-informed care, and they have expertise in areas that can support children in being able to better benefit from and participate in therapeutic treatments. To this point, this prologue also provides an overview of the ICF and provides examples of how the ICF may be used to support children with histories of trauma or maltreatment. As such, this prologue introduces the topics covered by seven articles as well as the epilogue. These articles cover reviews, tutorials, case studies, clinician development, and professional programming. Children who have experienced trauma or maltreatment are at an increased risk for experiencing neurological disruptions that affect their language and literacy development, which increases the likelihood SLPs will encounter children with these experiences on their caseloads. The articles included within this forum underscore the various ways children might be affected by traumatic experiences and how SLPs can use the ICF framework to identify barriers and facilitators when engaging in assessments and developing interventions.

Abstract Moses Naḥmanides’s complex relationship in his commentary to the Torah with the two great Jewish Bible commentators who preceded him—Rashi and Ibn Ezra—is well known. As he declares in the introductory poem to the commentary, he does not treat them equally. He grants Rashi “the right of the first-born,” relegating Ibn Ezra to second place, and that his relationship with Ibn Ezra will be far more fraught—one of “open rebuke and hidden love.” This article maintains, however, that neither Naḥmanides’s stated preference for Rashi nor his sharp criticism of Ibn Ezra reflects his original exegetical stance. At the outset of his interpretive career, it was in fact Ibn Ezra who commanded Naḥmanides’s special admiration. Ibn Ezra’s commentary—not Rashi’s—served as the point of departure for Naḥmanides’s earliest exegetical work. Rashi’s influence entered Naḥmanides’s corpus only gradually, forming part of the larger cultural transformation he experienced as his intellectual orientation shifted from Andalusia to northern France.

To investigate the relationship between quality of general movements and neurodevelopmental outcomes in 2-year-old infants born very preterm (VPT). This was a retrospective cohort study including infants born before 32 weeks' gestation. General movements video recordings at 3 months corrected age were assessed with the Motor Optimality Score-Revised (MOS-R) and child cognitive, language, and motor development at 2 years with the Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development, Third Edition. The study included 316 infants (52.5% male, mean [SD] gestational age 28.7 [2.3] weeks, birthweight z-score -0.14 [0.85]). The median MOS-R total score was 23. The mean cognitive composite, language, and motor scores were 102.0 (15.4), 92.1 (16.1), and 95.8 (15.3) respectively. Higher MOS-R total scores were related to better cognitive (p= 0.025) and motor development (p= 0.042). However, associations weakened when controlling for socioeconomic status, gestational age, birthweight, sex, and number of severe neonatal morbidities (i.e. severe brain lesion, necrotizing enterocolitis, sepsis, bronchopulmonary dysplasia, and retinopathy of prematurity). While the quality of general movements at 3 months corrected age is associated with the infant's cognitive and motor development at 2 years corrected age, it might have no incremental predictive power beyond socioeconomic status and the number of severe neonatal morbidities.