English Second Language is somewhat complex because learners’ English proficiency is either novice or intermediate. Therefore, language proficiency constitutes a fundamental learning barrier and necessitates rigorous interventions to avert further risks. In contrast, factors associated with novice or intermediate proficiency of English include, but are not limited to, methods of teaching English as a second language. Besides a variety of methods and strategies, English Second Language continues to pose a threat to learners’ academic proficiencies, more especially for inclusive education. It is the aim of this article to analyse the impact of Communicative Language Teaching as a strategy to learn English as a second language. On realising this aim, the article enlists the perks of mixed methods wherein purposive and cluster samplings of 20 participants were executed. The samples consisted of 12 Grade 5 and 6 English First Additional Language educators, four English First Additional Language subject advisors and four inclusive education educators from three intermediate schools in Thabo Mofutsanyana District. Data were generated using professional focus groups, surveys and interviews in a participatory action research with planning, observation and reflection/action. Similarly, thematic analysis was conducted wherein description and analysis of both tacit and spoken words were completed. The study discovered that Communicative Language Teaching is more effective if it is used as a primary strategy for teaching English Second Language. Communicative Language Teaching provides a cushion that resembles a perfect landing for language acquisition, especially if learners have adequate time for learning. On the contrary, it was established that English constitutes a language barrier and a lack of inclusive materials and personnel poses a threat to learning.

This study investigated the language expertise hypothesis on mouth-looking in toddlerhood and explored potential culture and sex effects. Polish and Norwegian 18- and-24-month-olds (N = 101; 44.55% females; data collected 2022-2024) viewed a speaker telling a story in familiar and unfamiliar languages. Toddlers showed more mouth-than-eyes looking across age groups, suggesting more mouth interest. They also showed greater mouth-looking in familiar languages, indicating language familiarity effects. Toddlers with larger vocabularies showed more mouth-looking in unfamiliar languages, possibly seeking helpful phonological-visual cues. These data show that mouth-looking continues supporting language development in toddlerhood in ways related to prior language experience. Exploratory analyses showed important differences in language acquisition and mouth-looking by language or culture and sex; potential mechanisms for such effects are discussed.

Abstract Understanding how different dimensions of syntactic complexity interact with processing demands is fundamental to language acquisition, pedagogy, and assessment. While structural measures like Clausal Density (CD) and Embedding Depth (ED) have been examined separately, their relationship with processing load, as proxied by Mean Dependency Distance (MDD), remains underexplored. This study investigates this interplay in 42,654 complex sentences from the Brown and LOB corpora, using statistical modeling to examine the nature of the CD-MDD relationship, ED’s independent contribution to MDD, and their interaction. Results reveal a non-linear CD-MDD relationship peaking at CD = 3, a distinct processing cost at the transition to double embedding (ED = 2), and a significant interaction where deeper embedding reverses the CD-MDD relationship. These findings demonstrate a dynamic trade-off in syntactic complexity, challenging additive models and supporting cognitive constraint theories. The results have direct implications for refining complexity measures in second language acquisition and for informing psycholinguistically-grounded pedagogy and assessment.

This paper aims to examine and transcend the “single-track” analytical paradigm of peer feedback research in the field of second language acquisition (SLA), and construct a novel “Conceptual framework of dual-role engagement.” Traditionally, learner engagement research has primarily focused on learners’ cognitive, behavioral, and emotional responses as feedback recipients. Derived from research on teacher feedback and automated assessment systems, this perspective fails to fully capture the dual role of learners as both feedback providers and recipients/processors in peer feedback activities, as well as the interactive nature of their roles. This study pays particular attention to the context of second language oral communication, precisely because oral feedback is highly immediate, interactive, and can most vividly reflect learners’ dynamic engagement process in switching between dual roles. This paper first outlines the paradigm shift in feedback concepts from one-way transmission to dialogue and negotiation, as well as the core characteristics of peer feedback as a social and collaborative language practice. Subsequently, it systematically reviews the development trajectory of learner engagement theory and its application and limitations in SLA feedback research, pointing out the theoretical gaps when directly applying the classic three-dimensional (cognitive, behavioral, emotional) model to peer feedback contexts. Based on this, this study proposes a “dual-role engagement framework” specifically tailored for SLA oral peer feedback, supported by sociocultural theory and cooperative learning theory. This framework examines learners’ engagement simultaneously on two interrelated tracks: “providing feedback” and “processing feedback,” elaborating on the specific connotations, observational indicators, and interactive mechanisms of learners’ cognitive, behavioral, and affective engagement when playing different roles. This study serves as a conceptual proposal. It represents a refined development of learner engagement theory. It also provides new conceptual tools to advance peer feedback research. Specifically, these tools facilitate a shift from a “result-oriented” to a “process-oriented” approach, and from viewing feedback as one-way transmission to understanding it as dialogue construction. Future research can commence from four aspects: the development of measurement tools, the verification of dynamic mechanisms, the exploration of influencing factors, and the testing of practical applications, to empirically consolidate and refine the theoretical framework.

Vocabulary knowledge plays a decisive role in the development of communicative competence in secondary EFL education; however, vocabulary instruction in many Vietnamese high schools continues to rely heavily on repetition-based exercises that often lead to limited retention and superficial processing. This study therefore investigates the effectiveness of the Memrise platform, a mobile-assisted learning application integrating spaced repetition and gamified practice, in enhancing vocabulary acquisition among Grade 10 students at The Asian International School in Vietnam. A pre-test–post-test quasi-experimental design was implemented with two intact classes (N = 58) over a ten-week intervention period, in which the experimental group received Memrise-supported instruction while the comparison group followed conventional textbook-based activities. Vocabulary achievement was measured using equivalent pre-test and post-test instruments, and semi-structured interviews were conducted with selected students from the experimental group to explore their learning experiences. Statistical analysis revealed that the Memrise group achieved significantly greater vocabulary gains than the comparison group, indicating a measurable instructional advantage. Interview findings further suggested increased engagement, perceived autonomy, and improved confidence in lexical recall, particularly due to structured review cycles and interactive task design. Collectively, the results support the pedagogical value of Memrise as a supplementary vocabulary tool in Vietnamese upper-secondary EFL contexts, while indicating the need for future research on long-term retention across broader educational settings.

This research investigates how university students perceive learning general English vocabulary using social media. With the rapid shift in the social and educational landscapes towards the seamless use of social media and its expanding role as an educational tool, its importance as an informal, interactive vocabulary acquisition tool continues to grow. The research investigates how students perceive social media as an additional resource for learning English vocabulary, focusing on Instagram, Twitter, and YouTube. The study employs an attitude research framework, using surveys and interviews, and focuses on the educational use of these platforms, the types of content, and the purported enhancement of English language abilities. The results indicate that most university students believe social media platforms assist with learning general English vocabulary. In addition, social media platforms offer informal, interactive, multimodal, and context-rich opportunities to learn vocabulary by engaging with posts, videos, voice notes, comments, and other users. The research emphasizes the use of social media as an educational tool to foster vocabulary acquisition, outlining ways to use it to facilitate language learning.

This study examines the use of Dutch passive constructions by French-speaking L2 learners in Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) and non-CLIL educational settings. While prior research has documented CLIL benefits in areas such as vocabulary acquisition (e.g., Bayram et al., 2019) and listening comprehension (e.g., Nieto Moreno de Diezmas, 2018), its impact on the acquisition of more complex syntactic structures like the passive voice remains underexplored. Employing a mixed-methods design, this study triangulates spontaneous productions from the Multilingual Traditional Immersion and Native Corpus (MulTINCo) (Hiligsmann et al., 2021) with data from a controlled elicitation task. Results show that CLIL learners produce passive constructions more frequently than their non-CLIL peers but demonstrate lower morphosyntactic accuracy. Their production diverges from native patterns in agent expression, favoring medial agent placement, alongside a marked overreliance on zijn-passives and a notable absence of impersonal passives. These findings indicate that while CLIL instruction may enhance structural engagement and syntactic experimentation, it does not guarantee consistent target-like accuracy. The study underscores the importance of supplementing content-based exposure with explicit, form-focused instruction to facilitate the accurate acquisition of complex grammatical forms in CLIL contexts.

In contrast to word formation in stem-based languages, Arabic words are derived through a process of mapping a consonantal root into a vowel pattern. Ample evidence suggests that, during lexical processing of real words in Arabic, native speakers are successful in decomposing words into their roots and patterns such that there is priming between Arabic words that share the same root. In L2 acquisition, however, the question remains whether L2 learners adopt L2 morphological processing mechanisms especially when these are different from L1 processes. The current study explores this question by investigating L2 Arabic learners’ sensitivity to the presence of roots when processing auditory speech in Arabic. 38 Indonesian learners of Arabic as a second language and 38 native Arabic speakers rated the word-likeness of auditorily presented nonwords in Arabic. Results reveal that L2 Arabic learners, like native speakers, are sensitive to the presence of roots in the nonwords. These findings are discussed in light of lexical processing models.

English language acquisition is vital for academic and professional advancement in non-English-speaking countries. Traditional classroom-based English instruction in Yemeni universities is often constrained by limited resources, prompting the investigation of alternative pedagogical approaches. The literature on Mobile-Assisted Language Learning (MALL) indicates its effectiveness as a communicative tool for enhancing English language learning through mobile applications. This study examines the perceived impact of mobile applications on English language learning outcomes among undergraduate students of English at Thamar University in Yemen. The study employed a quantitative research design, using a structured questionnaire administered to 103 students from the colleges of Arts and Education, which demonstrated strong internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.908). Statistical analysis (descriptive statistics, t-tests, ANOVA) revealed a clear consensus: 78.6% of participants either ‘agreed’ or ‘strongly agreed’ that their knowledge of English language proficiency improved due to mobile learning applications. A significant gender effect was observed, with female participants reporting higher perceived benefits. Likewise, the results showed that participants from the College of Education perceived a significantly greater impact than their peers from the College of Arts. However, variables such as age, academic level, or app usage frequency did not show significant differences. The study suggests that integrating MALL into the curriculum could be highly beneficial for overcoming resource constraints and improving learning outcomes. Future research should explore the comparative effects of specific applications and their long-term impact in resource-constrained contexts.

Anodal HD-tDCS of vmPFC facilitates learning of monosemous and polysemous words: A computational modeling study.

Modeling regularization in language acquisition as noise-tolerant grammar selection.

To investigate the development of language acquisition and speech perception in cochlear-implant (CI) recipients in relation to standardized norms using a language-acquisition test and speech-perception tests. Retrospective analysis. Tertiary hospital. One hundred forty-two participants who received bilateral CIs before the age of 24 months (age at implantation M = 9.61, SD: 3.95), with German as their first language, and without additional disabilities. Age at testing ranged from 2 to 6 years. Bilateral cochlear implantation within the first 2 years of life. German language-acquisition test for children aged 2.0 to 2.11 and 3.0 to 5.11; Freiburger Monosyllabic word test, Hochmair, Schulz, and Desoyer Sentence Test in quiet and noise were used. Results were statistically evaluated using the t test for pairwise comparisons and ANOVA for comparisons of multiple dependent groups. P- values were Bonferroni-corrected. The mean of all patients' data indicates that language production, receptive language, and auditory memory were within the range of age-appropriate, normal-hearing listeners, except for sentence production, which was reduced in the 2-year-old group. Over time, patients showed significant increases in language production, as indicated in the comparison of all final test results from 2 to 6 years. In addition, implantation before 12 months of age resulted in significantly better results in speech and language development than implantation between 12 and 24 months. A significant correlation was found between understanding sentences in noise and speech production/speech comprehension, but not understanding in quiet. Bilateral cochlear implantation is recommended before the age of 12 months, as there is less variability in the data on their hearing and in speech-acquisition performance than with a later implantation age of up to 24 months. In addition, if language acquisition is not age-appropriate, there is a greater likelihood that further diagnostic and therapeutic intervention will be needed before children enter school. Comprehensive audiological tests and speech development tests should therefore be carried out continuously during the first 6 years of life.

Statistical learning and individual differences in language abilities: A structural equation modelling study on the mediating roles of perceptual speed, working memory, and cognitive control.

Some and or in second language acquisition: Exploring linguistic and cognitive factors

Mathematical vocabulary in preschool children: Effects of linguistic and socio-economic factors on the production and comprehension of quantitative and spatial words and concepts.

Electrophysiological evidence of infants' understanding of verbs.

Evidence for a role of memory in novel word-learning after perinatal stroke.

Early exposure to digital devices and social media has been suggested as a relevant environmental factor that may influence neurocognitive maturation during childhood and adolescence. The limited scientific evidence available indicates that excessive and unregulated use could negatively affect multiple developmental domains, including language acquisition, executive functioning, attentional control, emotional regulation, and psychosocial outcomes. Although the current evidence does not allow for definitive claims of causality, the observed associations appear suggestive of potential links with these symptoms. In young children, prolonged screen time might be associated with language delays, impairments in working memory, and sleep disturbances. Among adolescents, compulsive use of social media may hyperactivate mesolimbic dopaminergic pathways, potentially reinforcing maladaptive reward-seeking behaviors and increasing vulnerability to anxiety, depression, and low self-esteem. These findings highlight the urgent need for evidence-based preventive strategies, parental mediation, and comprehensive public health interventions. While absolute certainty of causality is lacking, further investigation into these possible risks remains necessary.

The goal of this article was to determine if second language (L2) speakers benefit from living in mixed-language environments and whether said benefit applies across proficiency levels. To this end, we reanalyzed a subset of data from Gilbert et al. (2019) considering language entropy scores as a proxy for linguistic environment predictability. The task involved producing sentences designed around oronyms in French and English. Participants produced sentences in both languages, allowing the comparison of first language and L2 productions. Their results demonstrated the production of L2-appropriate prosodic cues, albeit after having reached a high level of L2 proficiency. Adding language entropy scores to the original statistical models revealed significant interactions suggesting that participants benefited from living in a mixed-languages environment whereby even low-proficiency speakers produced L2-appropriate prosodic cues. However, low-proficiency L2 speakers living in predictable linguistic environments failed to adapt their prosodic production to their L2, as previously observed. These results suggest that, irrespective of proficiency, the language environment has a significant impact on nonnative language production. This has implications for language development and models of language acquisition. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2026 APA, all rights reserved).

Gamification is increasingly used in higher education to enhance student motivation, engagement, and learning outcomes. However, its impact on specific English skills for non-language majors, particularly in STEM, remains under-researched, especially considering pre-test sensitization effects. This study examines the effect of Kahoot!-based gamification on English grammar, reading comprehension, and vocabulary acquisition among mathematics education students. A Solomon Three-Group design was employed: Group 1 (experimental) – pretest, treatment, posttest; Group 2 (control 1) – pretest, no treatment, posttest; Group 3 (control 2) – no pretest, treatment, posttest. Data were collected via pre- and post-tests, with analysis using paired-sample t-tests for within-group changes and ANOVA for between-group comparisons. Results showed significant improvement in the experimental group (p = 0.008). ANOVA indicated no significant difference between the experimental and control 1 groups, but significant differences emerged between the experimental and control 2 groups, as well as between the two control groups, highlighting the influence of pre-testing on gamification effectiveness. Cohen’s d = 0.42 suggests a modest effect. Overall, the study provides evidence that gamification can enhance English learning outcomes among non-language majors, particularly when combined with initial assessment to guide targeted interventions.