Large Language Models (LLMs) can serve as tools for understanding how probabilistic constraints interact during language acquisition. To motivate such use cases of LLMs, we discuss several examples from allied fields, including neurobiology and animal behavior, of how soft constraints shape learning and development in cognitive systems. We end by outlining four challenges that LLM cognitive modeling should address in the coming decade.

Futrell and Mahowald argue that the success of large language models should move the field away from the formal structures of generative linguistic theory. The limited success of these models falls short of formal linguistic theory in explaining both the character of human languages and understanding the trajectory of child language acquisition.

LLMs change the game for child language acquisition research, because they constitute an existence proof that - counter to most prevailing theoretical accounts - it is possible for learners to acquire a productive system of grammar solely from exposure to individual utterances, without the need for abstract grammatical rules or categories. Conversely, LLM development can benefit from insights from child language research.

Justice and L2 motivational network: An EBICglasso based analysis of English language learners' motivation, goal orientation, mindset, and justice in the classroom.

According to F&M, both infants and language models (LMs) find attested languages easier to learn than "impossible languages" that have unnatural structures. We review the literature and show that LMs often learn attested and many impossible languages equally well. Difficult to learn impossible languages are simply more complex (or random). LMs are missing human inductive biases that support language acquisition.

The prosodic characteristics of a native language greatly influence early language acquisition. Yet, Japanese mothers are known to use a specific prosodic structure in infant-directed vocabulary (IDV)-specifically, three-mora, two-syllable words with a heavy-light pattern-which, crucially, differs from the standard prosodic rhythm of adult vocabulary. This study used near-infrared spectroscopy to examine hemodynamic responses to the Japanese IDV form in 5-month-old (n=31) and 9-month-old (n=34) Japanese infants, targeting the period before and during the emergence of this preference. The results revealed that oxygenated hemoglobin was greater for the IDV form than for the non-IDV form in the left superior temporal gyrus (STG) for both age groups, consistent with the advantage of the IDV form observed in previous behavioral studies. Furthermore, this effect was localized to the left middle and left posterior STG in 5- and 9-month-old infants, respectively, highlighting early sensitivity to its prosodic structure followed by the emergence of phonological representation. This cortical shift, along with an observed trend toward adult-like patterns, may suggest a broader transition from perceptually accessible IDV structures to the more diverse patterns of standard adult vocabulary. Although 5-month-old infants who have not yet exhibited a preference for the IDV form may not have developed specific phonological representations, their brains' ability to process its prosodic pattern could serve as a foundation for subsequent learning. These findings demonstrate that the specific structure of Japanese IDV acts as a foundational scaffold, guiding the transition from initial prosodic tuning to mature word-level processing. SUMMARY: Early sensitivity to prosodic structure was observed in 5-month-old Japanese infants. Emerging phonological representation was observed in 9-month-old Japanese infants. Japanese infant-directed vocabulary form serves as a prosodic template.

Futrell and Mahowald argue language model (LM) success suggests humans may learn language entirely through domain-general statistical mechanisms. However, children differ crucially from LMs in their ability to surpass their input, their language learning trajectory, and the presence of a critical period. Until LMs account for these phenomena, it remains possible that human language acquisition is supported by innate, language-specific learning mechanisms.

This study was conducted to identify the challenges in English language learning among junior high school students in Talipao National High School–Main in terms of demographic profile, and the extent of challenges in grammar, vocabulary acquisition, spelling, pronunciation, and sentence structure; it also aimed to test whether there was a difference in the extent of challenges in terms demographic profile, and identify the correlation among identified language domains. This study utilized descriptive-correlational research design and involved 100 student-respondents carefully chosen through purposive sampling. Data were gathered using an adapted questionnaire and were processed using frequency, percentage, mean, standard deviation, t-test and ANOVA, and Pearson R. Findings show that most of the respondents were from age raging 15 to 16 years old, are a female, classified to different grade levels, majorly came from a family that belongs to low-income level. The results revealed that the students faced considerable challenges in all domains of English language learning, all indicated “Agree”, which describes pervasive and multi-faceted challenges in learning English language. There was no significant difference among the dimensions only when grouped according to grade levels; and there was a high to very high significant correlation among grammar, vocabulary acquisition, spelling, pronunciation, and sentence structure. It highlighted the necessity for holistic and grade-specific instructional methods. A connection to enhancing pedagogical approaches and creating targeted strategies to improve students’ command of the English language was established by the results.

Abstract Generative artificial intelligence (GenAI) is a powerful technology that has vast potential to support various aspects of second language acquisition (SLA). Given GenAI’s capabilities, it is particularly relevant for the teaching and learning of second language (L2) writing. Despite its potential, there are also clear hazards and a range of potentially negative side effects, many of which have yet to be explored. Building on existing research, in this piece, I propose a series of six future research tasks that may prove useful for further understanding the affordances and limitations of GenAI for L2 writing. These six research tasks are organized into three interrelated themes, which cover 1) learning processes and outcomes, 2) student use and interactions, and 3) teaching. For each theme, two research tasks are proposed. Each task includes a discussion of what research is needed, why it is needed, along with how scholars might investigate that research task by adopting quantitative, qualitative, or mixed methods. The goal of this piece is to provide potential research ideas for graduate students and faculty and, ultimately, to foster research–pedagogy connections involving GenAI, L2 writing, and SLA.

ABSTRACT Background The relative scarcity of studies of bilingual speakers with primary progressive aphasia (PPA) leads to knowledge gaps regarding their symptoms and patterns of language impairment. It is unknown if PPA symptoms in bilingual speakers differ from those of monolingual speakers. In addition, it remains unclear if one of a bilingual speaker’s languages is more vulnerable to the onset of symptoms and/or is better preserved. Furthermore, bilingualism factors (e.g. order/age of language acquisition (L1/L2) and language dominance) may explain patterns of impairment both within and across the variants of PPA. Aims To characterize the bilingualism factors, speech and language symptoms, and patterns of language impairment in a retrospective cohort of bilingual speakers with PPA. Methods In a large cohort (N = 69) of bilingual speakers, we performed a chart review to extract information regarding self/caregiver-reported PPA symptoms, first language impacted by PPA at symptom onset, less preserved language at time of evaluation, and bilingual history factors (age/order of acquisition (L1/L2) and language dominance). We explored how emergence and presentation of symptoms associated with bilingualism factors. Results The presenting symptoms were mostly consistent with current PPA diagnostic criteria, although symptoms unique to bilingual speakers were reported. The language reported to first be impacted by PPA, as well as the less preserved language at the time of evaluation, was generally reported to be the less dominant language, regardless of PPA variant. These measures did not associate as closely with age/order of acquisition (L1 versus L2). Conclusion Bilingual speakers with PPA may report additional symptoms that reflect their ability to speak more than one language. The less dominant language was most susceptible to the initial impact of PPA and also tended to the less preserved language at the time of evaluation. Future studies of bilingual speakers with neurodegenerative diseases should systematically consider bilingualism factors, which are likely to contribute to clinical presentation and disease progression.

This case study examines the challenges Albanian Upper Secondary Education (USE) students face in acquiring communicative and socio-cultural competence in Italian as a foreign language. A national survey involving 3836 students and 53 teachers highlighted significant challenges: low motivation, limited self-awareness, and anxiety during oral communication. The results reveal a clear discrepancy between the motivational strategies reported by the teachers and students' perceptions, emphasizing the need for more effective practices. To address these issues, the pedagogical potential of advertisements as authentic digital-media resources for developing communicative and sociocultural competence was considered. Based on CEFR principles and communicative approaches, the study analyses how advertisements can increase student motivation, language acquisition and cultural awareness. For this case study, a competence-based learning unit is also proposed, which integrates didacticized advertisements and interactive technology. The goal is to create engaging learning experiences that lower affective filters, increase communicative motivation, focus on the acquisition of communicative competence, and encourage intercultural reflection. These recommendations aim to inform teachers about more efficient language- learning methods, contributing to a more dynamic pedagogy oriented toward students' real needs.

Connecting Task-Based Language Teaching and Second Language Acquisition Research

This study explores teachers’ perceptions and utilization of translanguaging in English language teaching in Thailand. Translanguaging, which involves the strategic integration of students’ native language with the target language, has gained recognition for its potential to enhance language acquisition. Given its growing significance, this research examines how Thai English teachers at the primary and secondary school levels (N = 74) incorporate translanguaging into their classrooms. The study employed convenience sampling with predefined criteria to select participants. Quantitative data were collected with embedded qualitative components for triangulation. Descriptive statistics were applied to the quantitative data, while qualitative responses were reviewed for recurring themes and illustrative examples. The findings reveal that teachers frequently employ translanguaging to clarify concepts during classroom activities (40.5%), explain vocabulary and provide feedback (35.1%), and facilitate comprehension by integrating both students’ first language (L1) and English (L2) (36.5%). While many teachers recognize the benefits of translanguaging in enhancing students’ understanding and engagement, some express concerns about its potential to interfere with English immersion goals. The study highlights the importance of a strategic and balanced approach to translanguaging in language instruction. It suggests that professional development initiatives should be implemented to support teachers in effectively incorporating translanguaging while maintaining English immersion objectives in Thai classrooms.

ABSTRACT The alignment of second language acquisition (SLA) theories with first language acquisition models, while sharing certain aspects like behaviourist, linguistic, cognitive, and social dimensions, diverges in additional language (AL) development contexts, notably in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) and second (L2) and third language (L3) learning contexts. Distinctions arise in input quantity, output opportunities, and acquisition sequence. Previous SLA frameworks have not sufficiently accounted for the reversed literacy-to-oracy trajectory, the scarcity of multimodal and social input, and the role of artificial intelligence (AI) mediation in AL classes including EFL, L2, and L3 contexts. To address this disparity, generative AI model for AL development is proposed, drawing from explicit instruction, implicit learning, and generative AI mediation. After reviewing first and second language acquisition theories alongside multilingual scholarship, it introduces three core principles. Generative AI for development of additional language (GenAIDAL) underscores the unique nature of AL development concerning its developmental trajectory, i.e. progressing from literacy to oracy and dynamism-oriented symbiosis, i.e. functions, uses, and users in today’s digital era. GenAIDAL model involves synergistic employment of the first language through explicit instruction and the AL through implicit learning utilising generative AI tools.

Children's narrow learning bottleneck accelerates the emergence of statistical properties of language.

The present study is a narrative inquiry of emotional experiences and emotional trajectories in 12 adult second language (L2) learners' L2 learning trajectories. The study employed semi-structured interviews and written narratives to identify four emotional phases: initial enthusiasm, plateau frustration, breakthrough confidence, and sustained engagement. The transformative experiences were triggered by five types of critical incidents: communication success, relationships and mentorship, public performance, cultural immersion, and identity recognition. Four identity transformation patterns were identified: Determined Achiever, Reluctant Converter, Heritage Seeker, and Social Connector. The results show that emotions are not only not peripheral to the process of language learning but also that they are central organizing principles that influence persistence, resilience and reconstruction of identity. The narrative inquiry method was found to be methodologically beneficial in accessing emotional and identity aspects not measurable by quantitative methods. Results validate humanistic, affective learning approaches to language learning, which view students as whole persons who are experiencing existential change in the process of learning the language.

This article explores perceptions about education for the Deaf community within Deaf communities in Ireland, Finland, and the UK. Ireland, Finland, and the UK all provide legal recognition of sign languages in various forms. However, it is important to understand how these laws impact Deaf people, what their experiences with the law is, and how might the law be altered to improve the lives of people it purports to serve. Interview data from Deaf people across the three countries is presented here which explores these experiences. When asked about what they might improve in the law, an overwhelming number of responses related to the introduction of law to improve access to education. And so, this article has taken those responses and presented them for analysis. Research participants reported concerns about the quality of Deaf education, systemic problems in accessing education, acquisition of other language in Deaf people, the illusion of a choice of school options for parents of Deaf children and the dwindling number of Deaf schools. Participants suggested that meaningful access to bilingual education is needed for Deaf people.

ABSTRACT Australia’s refugee education policy development occurs within a fragmented and evolving landscape, shaped by competing priorities, historical precedents, and shifting political and economic contexts. While English language acquisition has dominated policy discourse, emphasis on policies for wellbeing and inclusion have gained prominence in recent years. However, significant gaps persist, leaving educators to navigate inconsistent and often ambiguous policy frameworks. Drawing on critical policy analysis and interviews with 12 policymakers in Australia, this study explores the tensions, constraints, and influences shaping policies that affect the education of refugee-background students and highlights the contested nature of policymaking in this area. Utilising the policyscape framework, we identify how policies interact, evolve, and are influenced by broader national and international education and migration discourses, as well as historical and institutionalised practices. Findings reveal that specific refugee education policies in Australia are largely absent or reactive, leaving a refugee education policy vacuum. In this vacuum, local actors work reactively in response to evolving student cohorts, defaulting to historical and institutionalised practice, while education policy development is driven by international trends towards universal rather than targeted approaches. This study calls for a more proactive, research-informed, and equity-driven approach to refugee education and policy development in Australia.

English language learning through mobile devices has significantly transformed educational practices over the past decade. With the increasing prevalence of smartphones and tablets, learners can access a wealth of resources that enhance their language acquisition process. This study investigates the impact of mobile-assisted English language education, focusing on seamless learning and the integration of multilingualism. Using a quantitative methodology, data were collected through questionnaires from 134 teachers and 190 students and analyzed using SPSS software. The findings reveal several important insights. Purposeful and strategic use of code-switching emerges as an effective pedagogical tool for enhancing second language learning in English classrooms. Additionally, integrating information and communication technologies into English language instruction positively impacts students' multilingualism and language acquisition. Furthermore, learners engaging with various forms of English demonstrate distinct language preferences and proficiencies, often shaped by regional sociocultural factors. The study's novelty lies in its exploration of multilingualism and code-switching in the learning process, emphasizing the importance of embracing linguistic diversity in educational settings and understanding its profound influence on language acquisition. Practical recommendations are provided to improve English language learning outcomes through mobile learning strategies.

Noticing in second language acquisition (SLA) research is routinely invoked as a necessary condition for learning, yet its conceptual status remains unstable, and its empirical operationalisation persistently contested. Across the literature, noticing has been variously equated with awareness, selective attention, discrepancy detection, depth of processing, intake, or learning itself - often without reconciliation. This article argues that the enduring difficulty of measuring noticing reflects a failure of definition rather than a lack of methodological sophistication. Building on communicative, interactionist, and cognitive perspectives, it advances a process-oriented reconceptualization of noticing as a functional boundary within ongoing communicative activity. Under this account, noticing marks the point at which automatic, predictive processing becomes insufficient for task continuation and processing effort must be renegotiated under task-relevant uncertainty. Noticing is thus treated as relational, transient, and process-internal, rather than as a directly observable mental state. The article shows how this reconceptualization clarifies longstanding evidential ambiguities and outlines its implications for theory and research across modalities in SLA.