Landfill Space Research Articles

Utilization of construction and agricultural waste in Malaysia for development of Green Concrete: A Review

Green Concrete (GC) is defined as a concrete that utilize a waste material for at least one of its component. The production of GC has been increasing due to the drawback of conventional concrete that create many environmental problems. In Malaysia, the amount of waste generates from agricultural and construction industries were increasing every year. Hence, one of the solutions to reduce the impact of conventional concrete and limited landfill spaces due to excessive waste is by utilizing it in concrete. This paper reviews the possible use of construction waste (Recycle Concrete Aggregate) and agricultural waste (Palm Oil Fuel Ash, Rice Husk Ash and Palm Oil Fibre) as partial replacement for the basic material in a concrete to produce an innovative Green Concrete. The optimum replacement level for each type of waste was also been review. Green Concrete also has the potential to reduce environmental pollution and solve the depletion of natural sources. The result from this review shows that the addition of agricultural waste or construction waste in concrete indicate positive and satisfactory strength when compared to normal concrete. Finally, a mass production of Green Concrete can fulfil the Construction Industry Transformation Plan (CITP) 2016-2020 made by CIDB that emphasizes on a construction system which is environmentally sustainable.

Investigate How Construction Waste Generation Rate is Different for Every Types of Project in Peninsular Malaysia Using Site Visit Method

Malaysia is a rapid development of its urban centre, and where construction and demolition (C&D) waste generation is increasing proportionally with the new construction industry development. In Malaysia, the most crucial issue highlighted by local researchers is excessive of C&D waste generation. The transfer of construction and demolition waste at landfills has brought about major ecological concerns and government sources demonstrate that there is an intense lack of landfill space in Malaysia. The aim of this study is to investigate the construction waste generation rate in Malaysia due to different project types. To obtain the waste generation rate, construction sites visit is required. In construction site, direct and indirect approaches were utilized to collect C&D waste generation data based on data available. For the construction waste generation rate, non-residential projects obtained smallest value such as 0.008 t/m2 while residential projects obtained highest value such as 0.016 t/m2. Social amenities obtained 0.010 t/m2 of waste generation rate. Waste generation rate is different compare to waste generation due to projects sizes. Waste generation rate shows the actual waste generation for every projects type based on gross floor area. The gross floor area is important parts need to be considered during waste generation which provide actual waste generation data. Waste generation rate plays an important role to measure waste generation for every type of projects. This study, will be very much beneficial for contractors and clients to control the construction waste in construction site and to identify efficiencies of projects using waste generation rate. Besides that, provide a generation rate on construction waste to the Government for control the waste and reduce illegal dumping in future

Quantifying the system-wide recovery potential of waste in the global paper life cycle

Waste from the global paper life cycle can be a lost economic opportunity and a risk to the natural environment and human health. This study assesses the recovery potential of major waste flows in the global paper life cycle to support improvements in material use. The “recovery potential” indicator shows the technical possibility for extracting value from waste through recycling and other forms of recovery. The potential is identified through a review of recovery technologies that are currently applied or likely to be commercially available by the year 2050. The analysis compares current material use in the global paper life cycle with an ideal scenario in which the recovery potential of all major waste flows is fulfilled. In the ideal scenario, the Recycled Input Ratio (RIR) is increased from 38% to 67%–73% and the landfill intensity is reduced from 331–473 kg/t paper to 0–2.6 kg/t paper. The reduction in required landfill space is achieved mainly through increased consumer waste recycling. Better management of industrial waste from the paper sector has a rather limited impact on the RIR and landfill intensity. The conditions for successful recovery of waste are discussed separately. The analysis shows that the recovery potential indicator can be usefully applied to estimate potential improvements in complex material systems and the findings may inform policies for resource efficiency and the circular economy.

RETRACTED: Enhanced performance for aggressive environments of green concrete composites reinforced with waste carpet fibers and palm oil fuel ash

Abstract World fiber production used in textile and carpet industries has been steadily increasing in the past few decades, now exceeding 70 million tons per year. About 50 tons of industrial waste polypropylene carpet fibers are sent to landfill in Malaysia annually. However, the landfill option is becoming increasingly impractical owing to growing landfill costs and the physical limitations on the number of landfill sites available. The need to recycle this waste is increasing owing to the lack of existing landfill spaces in many parts of the world, environmental concerns, and resource conservation. In this study, the performance of concrete composites comprising waste polypropylene (PP) carpet fiber and palm oil fuel ash (POFA) exposed to sulfate and acid after one year were investigated and obtained results were compared with those of water-cured specimens. Properties studied included visual inspection, mass, and strength measurements of hardened concrete. The particles morphology, as well as the effect of PP and POFA in the concrete-filler interfacial behavior, was investigated with scanning electron microscopy microstructural analysis. Six concrete mixes containing 0–1.25% fibers with a length of 20 mm were made for ordinary Portland cement (OPC). Further, six concrete mixes with the same fiber content were cast, where 20% POFA substituted OPC. It was found that the incorporation of waste carpet fibers and POFA decreased the workability of concrete. The experimental results revealed that the incorporation of 16% POFA and 0.5% PP waste carpet fibers enhanced the long-term compressive and tensile strength of water-cured specimens up to 20%. The positive interaction amongst POFA and waste carpet fibers subsequently reduced the crack formation and spalling, and reduction in strength loss of the concrete specimens exposed to acid and sulfate solutions. The findings of the study demonstrated that the utilization of PP waste carpet fibers along with POFA in the production of a new alternative concrete composite exposed to corrosive solutions is viable technically and environmentally.

Utilization of Fly Ash to Enhance Ground Waste Concrete‐Based Geopolymer

Demolition of the deteriorating infrastructure produces a large amount of waste concrete. Storage of waste concrete involves costly transportation, consumption of limited landfill space, and serious environmental problems. Combining them, the recycling of waste concrete is mainly limited to the use of recycled aggregates in the nonstructural filler and base course. Considering the limited geopolymerization potential of waste concrete, this study investigates the feasibility of using fly ash to enhance ground waste concrete‐based geopolymer to recycle and utilize waste concrete in high‐specification applications. The unconfined compressive strength of the binders synthesized at different fly ash contents, NaOH concentrations, and curing time are evaluated. Scanning electron microscopy/energy dispersive spectroscopy imaging, X‐ray diffraction analyses, Fourier Transform Infra Red analyses, and Magic Angle Spinning‐Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy techniques are also conducted to investigate the microstructure and phase/elemental compositions of the synthesized geopolymeric binders. The results indicate that the addition of fly ash to ground waste concrete profoundly enhances the strength of ground waste concrete‐based geopolymer up to 75% fly ash content. The simultaneous formation of geopolymeric gel and CSH gel is responsible for the strength increase. The geopolymeric binder with required strength can be produced by the appropriate addition of fly ash to ground waste concrete.

Research on the use of Ferro-Chrome slag in civil engineering applications

Over recent decades there has been rapid increase in the industrial waste materials and by-products yields due to the progressive growth rate of population, development of industry and technology and the growth of consumerism. With the growing environmental pressures to reduce waste and pollution, Intensive research studies have been conducted to explore all suitable reuse methods. Wastes such as construction waste, blast furnace, steel slag, coal fly ash and bottom ash have been approved in many places as alternative materials in bridges, roads, pavements, foundations and building construction. The use of industrial solid waste as a partial replacement of raw materials in construction activities not only saves landfill space but also reduces the demand for extraction of natural raw materials. Ferrochrome slag is a by-product from the production of chrome. There are environmental and economic advantages in seeing slags as a potentially useful resource rather than as waste products. Slag management at ferrochrome producing companies has been influenced by the limited space available and financial cost implications of the slag dumps. Internationally, e.g. South Africa, India, Norway, Turkey, East Europe, China, Sweden and USA, ferrochrome slag is used commercially in the road and construction Industries. This material is being used for road construction, as aggregates in concrete industry, brick manufacturing, and in pavement construction as engineering fill and has recently been tried in cement. This paper presents an overview of the recent advances of the use of ferrochrome slag in various civil engineering applications such as road construction, and cement and concrete industries.

Research on the use of Ferro-Chrome slag in civil engineering applications

Over recent decades there has been rapid increase in the industrial waste materials and by-products yields due to the progressive growth rate of population, development of industry and technology and the growth of consumerism. With the growing environmental pressures to reduce waste and pollution, Intensive research studies have been conducted to explore all suitable reuse methods. Wastes such as construction waste, blast furnace, steel slag, coal fly ash and bottom ash have been approved in many places as alternative materials in bridges, roads, pavements, foundations and building construction. The use of industrial solid waste as a partial replacement of raw materials in construction activities not only saves landfill space but also reduces the demand for extraction of natural raw materials. Ferrochrome slag is a by-product from the production of chrome. There are environmental and economic advantages in seeing slags as a potentially useful resource rather than as waste products. Slag management at ferrochrome producing companies has been influenced by the limited space available and financial cost implications of the slag dumps. Internationally, e.g. South Africa, India, Norway, Turkey, East Europe, China, Sweden and USA, ferrochrome slag is used commercially in the road and construction Industries. This material is being used for road construction, as aggregates in concrete industry, brick manufacturing, and in pavement construction as engineering fill and has recently been tried in cement. This paper presents an overview of the recent advances of the use of ferrochrome slag in various civil engineering applications such as road construction, and cement and concrete industries.

Waste to Energy Solution – The Sludge Treatment Facility in Tuen Mun, Hong Kong

The Environmental Protection Department (EPD) of the Government of Hong Kong Special Administrative Region is the owner and project proponent of the Sludge Treatment Facility (STF), a facility dedicated to treating sewage sludge. The Contract to design, build and operate the STF was awarded to VW-VES (HK) Limited (a subsidiary of Veolia), and Jacobs China Limited was appointed to act as the Employer’s Representative in October 2010. The construction of the STF was substantially completed in 2015 and it was put into operation on 1 April 2015.The STF, featuring state-of-art incineration technology, provides for a sustainable sewage sludge treatment solution, with a view to maximizing the reduction on disposal of the sludge to landfill. In consideration of the diminishing landfill space, the STF is designed to have a capacity of treating 2,000 tonnes per day, thereby reducing the mass of the sludge by 90%.The STF is also on another green mission – to convert waste into renewable energy harnessing the heat from the incineration process to generate electricity, resulting in the provision of all power for the daily on-site operations, with the design allowing the export of surplus power to the local grid. The STF also includes facilities for the production of both process and potable water as well as being able to treat all waste water for use on-site. This adopted design makes the STF a self-sustainable facility with no incoming water supply and outfall for wastewater.As well as the abovementioned technical aspects, the STF serves as a community facility. An environmental education centre located inside the STF showcases the technology used within the STF to convert waste-to-energy, and also to promote public awareness of various environmental issues in Hong Kong. There is also a diverse range of recreational and open areas (e.g. spa and garden) for the public to experience the benefits of waste-to-energy. Since the opening of the EEC on 29 June 2016, the number of visitors has exceeded 72,000.

Consumer preferences for green digital camera attributes to inform electrical and electronic equipment design and development

Electronic waste (e-waste) is a growing problem, causing concerns for many countries. Consumer electronics often feature substantial e-waste, yet little is known about the materials used or physical designs applied that might ensure the appropriate management of e-waste. This paper examines user-driven innovation in ‘green’ electronics, based on a 2015 survey of Taiwanese residents. The conjoint analysis, conducted with digital cameras, reveals consumers’ perceptions of innovative designs for seven component materials: battery, shell, monitor, filters, modeling, flash, and sensor. The results suggest that users can be encouraged to participate in the design of energy-related products that satisfy their needs. Rethinking the design of certain attributes in electronics can help reduce the need for toxic materials, improve energy consumption, reduce landfill space, and mitigate ecological pollution.

Survey of quantity and management condition of end-of-life tires in Iran: a case study in Tabriz

Once a tire is removed from a vehicle without the possibility of being remounted for continued on-road use, it is defined as waste and called end-of-life tire (ELT). ELTs are non-biodegradable, cannot be compressed and occupy large amount of space in landfills. Dumped tires provide breeding grounds for vectors and rodents and are susceptible to fire hazards. Numerous actions have been taken to manage ELTs worldwide; however, in Iran, there has not been much attention given to the issue. The goal of this study was to survey quantity and management conditions of ELTs and present managing principles according to the environmental and health aspects in Iran (a case study in Tabriz). The amount of ELTs in Iran was estimated by considering the production, import, export and life of tires. Next the current ELT management condition in Tabriz City was investigated using a checklist, observation, site visiting and interview. Then by considering scientific sources and also, according to experiences in other countries and current conditions, managing principles were suggested. Results showed that 198,346–339,678 tonnes of ELTs have been produced in Iran during 2003–2015 that equals 2.95–4.52 kg per capita per year. The amount of ELTs has had almost increasing trend during last 13 years. About 6390 tonnes of ELTs annually in Tabriz City are landfilled or dumped, which can create great hazards to the health and environment. Based on the results of this study, for improving the current condition of ELTs, first, the ELT production must be reduced and then ELTs must be reused or recycled. Moreover, landfilling of ELTs should be banned gradually and extended producer responsibility (EPR) system must be implemented for their management.

EMPHASIZING THE ROLE OF E-WASTE IN THE FINANCIAL PROFITABILITY OF LANDFILL MINING PROJECTS

The Landfill Mining (LFM) concept refers to the process of excavating, and sorting solid waste from operating or closed landfills in order to recycle or produce energy from recovered materials, conserve landfill space, and rehabilitate/redevelop contaminated land. Although LFM offers a wide range of environmental and social benefits, LFM projects need to be, at the same time, economically feasible. The latter is heavily influenced from the composition of the waste excavated from the landfill, the quality of recovered materials and the recycling market conditions. This paper aims specifically at exploring the role of e-waste in the profitability of LFM projects and filling this gap in the literature. For the purposes of the analysis, a “typical” Greek landfill site is examined forming different alternatives with respect to the objectives of e-waste recovery and processing and, consequently, the cost and benefits of the LFM operations, based on the findings of the first pilot project of LFM carried out in Greece, at Polygyros landfill. The results of the study show that the presence of e-waste improves the profitability indices. However, it seems that the adoption of more complex recycling and recovery processes leads to no gain in the financial results.These findings are supported by the uncertainty analysis conducted, which reveals that the price and concentration of plastics are the most significant factors, followed by the non-ferrous metal price and concentration. The conclusions of the study should be seen with caution, however. As the international experience shows, the financial success of LFM projects is site-specific and is not assured in all cases. Therefore, it should be clear that further research efforts in the field are warranted to definitely answer the question. Article DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.20319/mijst.2017.32.122144 This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Non-commercial 4.0 International License. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/ or send a letter to Creative Commons, PO Box 1866, Mountain View, CA 94042, USA.

Preliminary Study on Kano Model in the Conceptual Design Activities for Product Lifecycle Improvement

Product manufactured with short life cycle had only one major issue, it can lead to increasing volume of waste. Day by day, this untreated waste had consumed many landfill spaces, waiting for any possible alternatives. Lack of product recovery knowledge and recyclability features imprinted into product design are one of the main reason behind all this. Sustainable awareness aspect should not just be implied into people’s mind, but also onto product design. This paper presents a preliminary study on Kano model method in the conceptual design activities to improve product lifecycle. Kano model is a survey-type method, used to analyze and distinguished product qualities or features, also how the customers may have perceived them. Three important attributes of Kano model are performance, attractive and must-be. The proposed approach enables better understanding of customer requirements while providing a way for Kano model to be integrated into engineering design to improve product’s end-of-life. Further works will be continued to provide a better lifecycle option (increase percentage of reuse, remanufacture or recycle, whereby decrease percentage of waste) of a product using Kano model approach.

Study on Strength and Durability Characteristics of Concrete with Ternary Blend

In the present scenario to fulfill the demands of sustainable construction, concrete made with multi-blended cement system of Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) and different mineral admixtures is the wise choice for the construction industry. In this research work, M20 grade mix of concrete (with water - binder ratio as 0.48) is adopted with glass powder (GP) and Sugar Cane Bagasse Ash (SCBA) as partial replacement of cement. GP is an inert material, they occupy the landfill space for considerable amount of time unless there is a potential for recycling. Such glass wastes in the crushed form have a good potential in the infrastructure industry. Replacement of cement by GP from 30% to 0% by weight of cement in step of 5% and by SCBA from 0% to 30% in step of 5% respectively was adopted. In total, seven different combinations of mixes were studied at two different ages of concrete namely 7 and 28 days. Compressive strength of cubes for various percentage of replacement were investigated and compared with conventional concrete to find out the maximum mix ratio. Flexural strength of concrete for the maximum mix ratio was found out and durability parameters viz., water absorption and sorptivity were studied. From the experimental study, 20% SCBA and 10% GP combination was found to be the maximum mix ratio.

Modes of governing Canadian waste management: a case study of Metro Vancouver’s energy-from-waste controversy

ABSTRACTManaging municipal solid waste is a pressing environmental and political concern for Canadian municipalities who bear the primary responsibility for waste management (WM). In 2015, Metro Vancouver’s (MV’s) plans to expand their capacity to expand their WM capacity with energy-from-waste technology was abandoned, despite shrinking landfill space and persistent public opposition to new landfills. Using Bulkeley et al.’s [(2005). Governing municipal waste: towards a new analytical framework. Journal of Environmental Policy and Planning, 7(1), 1–23. doi:10.1080/15239080500251700] ‘modes of governing framework’, we analyse MV’s failed attempt to expand their energy-from-waste capacity to better understand the challenges associated with governing WM in Canada. We argue that a history of downloading responsibility for WM to municipalities, regional districts, and industry has fragmented WM governance, posing a challenge for developing new waste infrastructure. We find that this localization of responsibility is incompatible with contemporary WM challenges. The scalar mismatch between waste’s material impacts and the scale at which waste is managed has resulted in co-dependence and conflict between putatively independent municipalities, regional districts, and private companies. This inhibits higher-level WM coordination while the autonomy of individual municipalities is simultaneously undermined.

Low temperature grade determinations of asphalt mortar without extraction before and after one year storage duration

Due to many reasons; including the reduction of new pavement construction, conservation of natural resources, preservation of the environment, reduction of landfill space, the use of reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) as a component of asphalt mixture has been gaining increasing popularity in recent years around the world. The objective of the present research is conducting an investigation of storage duration effect on the low temperature characteristics of RAP binders without extraction. Bending Beam Rheometer (BBR) was used as the primary apparatus to evaluate the low-temperature properties of asphalt mortars containing RAP fines. The experimental design included three RAP sources, three base binders and two RAP contents. The test results indicated that the minimum low temperatures of modified binders containing RAPs after one year were generally higher compared to those containing initials RAPs which meant the storage duration had an effect on the aging process of RAP binders. In addition, the modified binders with burned RAPs had lower performance minimum temperature than those with unburned RAPs. The minimum low temperatures of the binders containing RAP without extraction were determined by various RAPs and base binder types.

Achieving zero waste of municipal incinerator fly ash by melting in electric arc furnaces while steelmaking

The main objective of this work was to promote zero waste of municipal incinerator fly ash (MIFA) by full-scale melting in electric arc furnaces (EAFs) of steel mini mills around the world. MIFA, generally, is considered as a hazardous waste. Like in many countries, MIFA in Taiwan is first solidified/stabilized and then landfilled. Due to the scarcity of landfill space, the cost of landfilling increases markedly year by year in Taiwan. This paper presents satisfactory results of treating several hundred tons of MIFA in a full-scale steel mini mill using the approach of “melting MIFA while EAF steelmaking”, which is somewhat similar to “molten salt oxidation” process. It was found that this practice yielded many advantages such as (1) about 18wt% of quicklime requirement in EAF steelmaking can be substituted by the lime materials contained in MIFA; (2) MIFA would totally end up as a material in fractions of recyclable EAF dust, oxidized slag and reduced slag; (3) no waste is needed for landfilling; and (4) a capital cost saving through the employment of existing EAFs in steel mini mills instead of building new melting plants for the treatment of MIFA. Thus, it is technically feasible to achieve zero waste of MIFA by the practice of this innovative melting technology.

Effect of foundry waste on the mechanical properties of Portland Cement Concrete

Approximately 6–10 million tons of waste is produced annually by the ferrous and non-ferrous foundry industry in the United States and estimates have shown that only 15% of the waste produced is being recycled. The increasing scarcity of landfill space and disposal cost has fashioned a need for an alternative disposal method of this large industrial waste. Foundry waste can consist of many products such as used-foundry sand, slag, ash, refractory, coagulant, baghouse dust, pattern shop waste, and debris. Past researchers have presented an alternative disposal method by using spent sand and slag as constituents in concrete with positive results. This paper generalizes the foundry waste for use in Portland Cement Concrete (PCC) in order to increase the recycling percentage, by reducing processing time/cost and using all the waste produced by the foundry industry. This was done by partially replacing both fine aggregate and coarse aggregate of concrete with lightly processed foundry waste. Since foundry waste contains both fine and coarse materials, the as-received foundry waste was lightly processed and sieved to match the control concrete mixtures coarse and fine aggregate distribution. Both virgin coarse and fine aggregate were replaced by mass at 10%, 20%, and 30%. Two mixture groups replaced individual constituents separately (coarse and fine), and one mixture group replaced both coarse and fine in the same mixture. The compressive strength, splitting-tensile strength, flexural strength, and modulus of elasticity were measured for all groups at 7, 14, and 28days. The results indicated that general foundry waste as either coarse, fine, or combined by mass replacement of natural aggregate has no impact on the mechanical performance of PCC up to 30% for individual replacement or 20% combined. This result not only demonstrates a possible avenue to increase the amount of foundry waste recycled annually, but it also reduces the demand for virgin aggregates for PCC.

Characterizing the generation and flows of construction and demolition waste in China

Associated with the continuing increase of construction activities such as infrastructure projects, commercial buildings, and housing programs, China has been experiencing a rapid increase of construction and demolition (C&D) waste. Till now, the generation and flows of China’s C&D waste has not been well understood. This paper aims to provide an explicit analysis of this based on a weight-per-construction-area method. Our results show that approximately 2.36 billion tonnes of C&D waste were generated in China annually during the period of 2003–2013, of which demolition waste and construction waste contributed to 97% and 3%, respectively, in 2013. East China contributed over half of the total C&D waste in China due to their rapid economic development and expansion of cities, followed by Middle China (21%) and South China (11%). Potential economic values from the recycling of C&D waste were found to vary from 201 billion (the worst scenario, i.e., the current practice of C&D waste management) to 401 billion US dollars in 2013 (the most optimistic scenario, i.e., C&D waste is assumed to be well recycled); and the landfill space demands were estimated to range from 7504millionm3 (the worst scenario) to 706millionm3 (the most optimistic scenario) accordingly. Consequently, increasing the recycling rate and reducing landfill rate of C&D waste could not only improve the potential recycling economic values, but also dramatically reduce land use and potential environmental impacts.

Waste-to-Hope: Measuring Sustainability Benefits of Product Philanthropy Partnership

This study investigates the sustainability-related impacts of the Framing Hope program, an innovative private and nonprofit sector partnership between the nonprofit Good360 and The Home Depot. Specifically, this paper estimates the energy savings, landfill space not filled, and the energy- and landfill-related cost savings associated with the Good360 product philanthropy program with The Home Depot, illustrating that benefits accrue to both company and communities by linkages between environmental, socioeconomic, and energy dimensions. Findings suggest that by redirecting products from the waste stream into usable community resources, considerable landfill space, costs, and energy savings were realized. Product donations can serve as an important platform for sustainable community development and capacity building. This research adds to the growing body of knowledge on environmental performance, corporate giving, and cross-sector partnerships in sustainable and social entrepreneurship.

Landfill Operations and Off Highway Construction Vehicle Visibility Impairment Issues Result in a Serious Injury: A Case Study

This case study reviews the hazards involved with the work procedures and work environment combined with large mobile equipment associated with a landfill operation. An active landfill is a very busy work environment. There typically is a constant stream of municipal solid waste (MSW) trucks of various sizes and dimensions approaching and dropping their waste load onto the landfill active work area, which is referred to as the landfill face or tipping area. In addition to the MSW delivery truck traffic, the active face in this case study was being traversed back and forth by two large industrial vehicles: a bulldozer (or “dozer”) and a steel-wheeled compactor vehicle. The injured party, who was just transferred to the job of “waste spotter,” or just spotter, had the responsibility of directing the incoming stream of MSW trucks as to where to dump their loads while also directing (and avoiding) the tracked loader and the steel-wheeled compactor vehicle as they operated on the landfill active face. Additionally, due to the dumped MSW, the active landfill face topography is constantly changing, and the pedestrian spotter therefore must constantly be moving on the active face to avoid being struck by the vehicular traffic. The bulldozer manufacturer acknowledged that the loader travels in reverse approximately 50 percent of its operating time on the landfill space. Hence, any static visibility impairments were further compounded when the dozer traveled in reverse over changing topography. Other issues that negatively affected the landfill face hazardous environment were a lack of any safety procedures for the landfill operations and a lack of hazard training and instructions provided to the waste spotter working the landfill face.