Land Restoration Research Articles (Page 1)

In Eritrea, efforts are being made to tackle the widespread land degradation and promote natural resources and the agricultural sector. However, these efforts lack digital resources assessment, mapping, planning and monitoring. Thus, we developed soil organic carbon (SOC) predictor models for the Western Lowlands of the country, employing 6 machine learning models with different input variables (36, 27, 15, and 08) obtained following these variables selection strategies: (1) all proposed SOC predictor variables; (2) very high multicollinearity (≥0.900 **) reduction; (3) high multicollinearity (≥0.700 **) reduction; (4) the Boruta feature selection algorithm. The results revealed that SOC levels were generally low (mean = 0.43%). Grazing lands, rainfed croplands, and irrigated farmlands all exhibited similarly low SOC values, attributed to unsustainable land management practices that deplete soil nutrients. In contrast, natural forestlands exhibited significantly higher SOC concentrations, highlighting their potential for soil carbon sequestration. Among the tested models, the XGBoost algorithm using 27 covariates achieved the highest predictive performance (RMSE = 0.118, R2 = 0.758, RPD = 2.252), whereas the multiple linear regression (MLR) model with 8 variables yielded the lowest performance (RMSE = 0.141, R2 = 0.742, RPD = 1.883). Compared to the Boruta-based feature selection, the MLR, PLS, XGBoost, Cubist, and GB models showed performance improvements of 10.41%, 10.06%, 6.72%, 6.50%, and 3.15%, respectively. Rainfall emerged as the most influential predictor of SOC spatial variability in the study area. Other important predictors included temperature, soil taxonomy, SWIR2 and NIR bands from Landsat 8 imagery, as well as sand and clay contents. We conclude that reducing very high multicollinearity is essential for improving model performance across all tested algorithms, while reducing moderate multicollinearity is not consistently necessary. The developed SOC prediction models demonstrate robust predictive capabilities and can serve as effective tools for supporting soil fertility management, land restoration planning, and climate change mitigation strategies in the Western Lowlands of Eritrea.

Although agriculture is the greatest source of food for food security, local employment, and global economic strength, it is at the same time one of the most sensitive to climate change. Productivity and sustainability are at risk due to rising temperatures, irregular rainfall, soil degradation, and pest outbreaks. The concept of Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA), advocated by international organizations like FAO and the World Bank, represents a holistic approach for tackling these challenges, integrating coping with adaptation and mitigation into improved productivity. However, the widespread adoption of CSA practices hinges as a first requirement on proper and supportive agricultural finance mechanisms. This article explores the central importance of agricultural finance to climate-smart farming and sustainable agricultural development. The analysis was done at the global level by using secondary data from global databases, reports, and published literature, which investigates how financial tools (microcredit, crop insurance, green bonds, carbon financing, blended finance) facilitate smallholder access to inputs, technologies, and markets. The results underscore the important role played by dedicated funding in advancing water-efficient irrigation, renewable energy for agriculture, improved seed types, and support for land restoration. Evidence from case studies in various regions confirms that finance-based CSA (increase 30%) increases the productivity, de-risks, and builds resilience of smallholder households. The article concludes that orienting agricultural finance towards climate-smart goals is crucial, as is a mix of new financial instruments and public–private partnerships with supportive policies to fill the financing gaps and make sure all actors benefit from these.

Guardians of arid lands: deep-rooted defense against desertification and climate change.

A good understanding of the effects of different afforestation measures in alpine sandy land on the physicochemical properties, enzymatic activities, and bacterial community structure of such crusts enables elucidation of the succession patterns of biological soil crusts and provides a theoretical basis for precise optimization of desertification control programs in alpine sandy land. In the present study, four afforestation measures—Salix cheilophila+ Populus simonii (WLYY00), S. cheilophila (WL), P. simonii (YY), and Caragana korshinskii (NT00) plantations—were adopted. The physicochemical properties and enzymatic activities of bare sand, algae crust, and moss crust in the four afforested sites were analyzed using Illumina high-throughput sequencing and PICRUSt2 functional prediction to investigate the bacterial community structure and function. Results indicated the following: (1) Water content, nutrient content, enzymatic activities, and bacterial community richness and diversity increased stepwise with succession from the bare sand stage to algae crust and to moss crust. The enhancement effect of YY on the above indicators and fine particle content was most prominent. (2) The primary environmental factors affecting bacterial community structure in algae and moss crusts were adequate phosphorus and organic matter, respectively, and the correlations between the activities of the four enzymes and the bacterial community structure are also quite close. (3) Functional prediction indicated that metabolism was the main primary function of biological soil crusts at the various sample sites. YY maintained the balance of primary functions and provided precise support for the physiological characteristics and ecological needs of different crust types in the secondary functions. In conclusion, among the four types of afforestation measures with a restoration period of 24 years, YY provided a greater advantage in improving the nutrient content, bacterial community structure, and functional potentials of biological soil crusts. The results of this study can serve as a scientific reference for screening of afforestation measures and protecting and utilizing biological soil crusts during the ecological restoration of alpine sandy lands in the present study area and other regions.

Prickly pear (Opuntia spp.) is more than a conventional crop in Morocco; it serves as a keystone species sustaining rural livelihoods and enhancing ecosystem resilience. Owing to its remarkable tolerance to drought, poor soils, and heat stress, Opuntia has become integral to sustainable agriculture, land restoration, and national programs such as the Green Morocco Plan aimed at combating desertification. However, this success has been critically threatened by the rapid spread of the cochineal (Dactylopius opuntiae), a devastating pest that has decimated cactus plantations nationwide. To quantify the magnitude and spatial extent of this invasion, we performed a high-resolution geospatial analysis in Rhamna Province—one of Morocco’s main cactus-producing regions—between 2014 and 2020. A grid-based visual interpretation method was applied to sub-meter Google Earth imagery, supported by 3,305 ground control points and GIS post-processing. Cactus cover declined sharply from 23,326 ha in 2014 to only 267 ha in 2020 (−98.9%), with remaining stands highly fragmented across roughly ten communes. The corresponding annual revenue loss, estimated from fruit and biomass conversion factors and farm-gate prices, reached approximately 230.6 million MAD (≈ 23.8 million USD). Accuracy assessment based on confusion matrices yielded high overall agreement (overall accuracy and Cohen’s κ with 95% confidence intervals), confirming the reliability of the results. These spatially explicit, accuracy-controlled findings reveal the dramatic contraction of Opuntia cultivation and provide a quantitative baseline for recovery monitoring. The study highlights the urgent need for coordinated pest management and deployment of resistant genotypes, while demonstrating the value of expert-guided visual interpretation for monitoring bio-invasions in fragmented arid agroecosystems where conventional spectral classification often fails to capture fine-scale dynamics.

This paper examines current issues in land use and protection control as one of the main functions of public administration in the field of land use and protection, the main task of which is to ensure the rational and effective use, protection, and restoration of land. At the same time, control is an important and integral element of the organizational and legal mechanism for implementing the Ukrainian state’s obligation to provide special protection for land as a fundamental national resource. The implementation of the control management function in the field of land relations covers not only the processes of acquiring land plots, their use, and the termination of acquired rights, but also land management relations involving public administration. Current legislation distinguishes between state and public control as subjects of control over land use and protection. Land law norms that previously regulated the exercise of self-government control have lost their force, and state and public control have undergone significant changes. Today, the main powers in the sphere of state control are divided between the State Geocadastre and the State Environmental Inspection. A new feature of the current land legislation is the possibility of state control over the use and protection of land by the executive bodies of village, settlement, and city councils. The exercise of state control by these bodies at the local level over compliance with the conditions established by law is in line with EU practice and is consistent with the European Charter of Local Self-Government. The effectiveness of this control directly depends on how land use and protection are planned. When the provisions of a comprehensive spatial development plan for local communities are implemented and high-tech innovations are used to exercise state control over land use and protection at the local level by the executive bodies of local councils, the effectiveness of such control is significantly increased. On the other hand, the exercise of the same control powers in the field of land relations by the State Geocadastre of Ukraine and the State Environmental Inspection of Ukraine creates a situation where, firstly, the functions of such control are duplicated, secondly, conditions for abuse are created, thirdly, pressure on economic entities is unreasonably increased and encourages officials to engage in corrupt practices, and fourthly, it leads to an increase in state budget expenditures for the maintenance of these bodies. The article notes that in a state governed by the rule of law, where the function of state control is enshrined in law, the effective functioning of the relevant mechanisms depends on two factors: the creation of a system of authorized bodies capable of effectively performing their tasks and the granting of sufficient powers to these bodies to enable them to perform their tasks effectively.

The article is devoted to the analysis of organisational and legal issues of land use and protection for organic farming under martial law in Ukraine. The relevance of the issue is determined by the need to introduce sustainable, environmentally oriented models of agricultural production, one of which is organic farming, in response to global challenges related to climate change, depletion of natural resources and food crises. It is emphasised that the current legislation does not contain specific provisions regulating land use in organic production, which complicates the certification, use, protection and restoration of organic land. Attention was drawn to the negative impact of the war, in particular, the withdrawal of land from cultivation as a result of occupation, mining, soil contamination, destruction of infrastructure, perennial plantings, material and technical base, disruption of logistics routes and flooding of organic land due to the destruction of the Kakhovka Hydroelectric Power Plant. Ways to improve legal regulation were proposed: introducing a special status for organic land and prohibiting its removal for non-agricultural purposes (except in exceptional cases related to national security), restoring the mechanism for compensating for losses in agricultural production, developing land reclamation systems, introducing tax incentives and other means of state support for organic farming entities. Positive steps taken by the Government regarding the adoption of the Procedure for the use of funds to compensate for the costs of humanitarian demining of land were noted, according to which organic farming entities also received the right to compensation for the costs of humanitarian demining of land. It was concluded that for the effective development of the organic sector in the post-war period, a comprehensive update of land and agricultural legislation is necessary, taking into account the specifics of organic production and military challenges. This will ensure the preservation and restoration of soil fertility, expand the area of organic farmland, and contribute to the achievement of sustainable development goals and Ukraine’s European integration commitments.

Irrigation system restoration is crucial for enhancing agricultural productivity and ensuring food security. The study aims to analyze the regulatory framework and financial mechanisms for restoring irrigation systems in the de-occupied territories of southern Ukraine while addressing key challenges related to land use, water resource management, and economic recovery. The study employs a mixed-methods approach, including policy analysis, stakeholder interviews, and financial modeling. Policy documents and legislative acts are examined to assess the effectiveness of regulatory measures. Interviews with local agricultural stakeholders provide qualitative insights, while financial modeling evaluates the impact of EU financial instruments. Groundwater over-extraction, biodiversity losses, low species resilience, and finance shortages are distinguished as the critical issues preventing from restoration of de-occupied lands in Ukraine. It is defined that groundwater over-extraction leads to aquifer depletion and land degradation. The study develops policy recommendations to govern groundwater use, emphasizing the need for modern monitoring technologies, efficient irrigation techniques, and coordinated water resource management to ensure the long-term viability and resilience of irrigation infrastructure in de-occupied territories. Community-based initiatives and policy interventions are explored as essential conservation components to increase species resilience. The creation of wildlife corridors and the implementation of protected areas are defined as other key measures to mitigate biodiversity loss. The findings show that the restoration of de-occupied Southern Ukraine depends on such types of EU financial support as subsidies, grants, and low-interest loans. These funds are mainly delivered through the following mechanisms: direct government allocations, partnerships with international financial institutions like the European Investment Bank (EIB), and targeted agricultural recovery programs. The EIB as the EU lending arm is examined in the context of its role in the post-war recovery and economic resilience of Ukraine’s agricultural sector, with a particular focus on Trésorerie Sociale de l’État (TSE). It is defined that TSE facilitates financial mechanisms to support agricultural enterprises, stabilizing local economies and fostering sustainable development in war-affected regions. The research highlights the interplay between European financial institutions and national regulatory policies in rebuilding Ukraine’s agricultural sector. Keywords: Agricultural lands, food security, land rehabilitation, land fertility, regulatory policy, water resource management.

ABSTRACTPost‐mining sandy soils have low water retention, which causes soil particle separation and persistent soil erosion. Although organic matter is commonly used for soil restoration, it is lightweight, washes away during heavy rain, and decomposes under strong sunlight. The high potential for extreme rainfall events in tropical regions poses significant challenges to restoration projects. Therefore, we investigated the impact of kaolinite clay particles on enhancing soil stability in post‐mining sandy soils. Soil samples were collected from three sites representing different succession stages of post‐mined land (0, 1, and 6 years since mining cessation) and an adjacent natural forest as the reference site on Belitung Island, Indonesia. Soil samples were treated with 1% or 5% kaolinite or left untreated (control) and incubated at 34°C to mimic the local conditions of the study area. The samples were then analyzed to determine the soil aggregate distribution, water holding capacity, and soil erodibility, and SEM imaging was performed to examine the soil particle morphology. The results revealed an increasing trend in the silt‐sized aggregate content and a 2%–5% increase in water retention in the 6‐year soils relative to the untreated soils. The highest water retention was observed in the 6‐year post‐mining soil sample. Kaolinite amendment significantly reduced soil erodibility by 40%–50% compared to the untreated soils, even in the early restoration period (0–1 year post‐mining). Kaolinite improved soil aggregation and water retention in post‐mining sandy soils while reducing soil erodibility—highlighting its potential for accelerating land restoration in mining‐affected areas.

Drought stress is one of the most dangerous consequences of climate change, threatening plants and ecosystem stability worldwide. Most available studies have focused on drought tolerance in crops, while many desert native plant species remain poorly studied, despite their exceptional ability to tolerate drought. This research gap limits our ability to harness these plants in climate change-resilient agriculture, ecological restoration, food and forage innovation, and genetic improvement programs. This study aims to evaluate and compare the drought tolerance mechanisms of four native species, including Lycium shawii, Salvadora persica, Calligonum comosum, and Haloxylon salicornicum, under three irrigation regimes: control (100% field capacity), moderate drought (40% FC), and severe drought (25% FC), and to identify the traits responsible for tolerance to use them in future agricultural achievements. Morphological parameters, photosynthetic pigments, relative water content (RWC), gas exchange parameters (A, gs, E, VPD), osmolyte accumulation, lipid peroxidation (MDA), antioxidant enzyme activities (CAT, POD, SOD, PPO), and membrane stability (EC, EL) were assessed. Drought reduced biomass and plant height in all species, with L. shawii and H. salicornicum showing high root-to-shoot ratios due to adaptive root investment. L. shawii had stable chlorophyll and carotenoid levels, while C. comosum showed a sharp decline. Photosynthetic efficiency and water use parameters remained stable in L. shawii and S. persica, while they declined under severe drought in the remaining species. L. shawii had higher proline and sugar accumulation, reflecting effective osmotic adjustment. L. shawii and S. persica had strong antioxidant responses, and lower MDA and electrolyte leakage confirmed better oxidative stress defense. In contrast, C. comosum showed weak membrane stability. These results showed that L. shawii and S. persica have superior drought tolerance through physiological, biochemical, and structural adaptations. This research helps in selecting drought-tolerant species for desert rehabilitation, land restoration, and future breeding programs.

The African Great Green Wall (GGW) initiative is a major effort to achieve the Sustainable Developed Goals (SDG) 15.3 target of Land Degradation Neutrality (LDN) in the Sahel regions. This study provides a comprehensive assessment of the land productivity dynamics (LPD) within the GGW from 2013 to 2022, serving as a sub-indicator for SDG 15.3.1 reporting and analyzes the key factors influencing these changes. Our results indicate that the land degradation outpaces restoration in the GGW, with 4.93% of the area experiencing declining land productivity (LP) compared to only 3.44% showing improvement. This suggesting that the effectiveness of the GGW initiative has not met expectations, highlighting the need for more targeted interventions. Among the drivers of LPD, we found that land cover change (LCC) accounts for the largest share of LPD increase (30.97%), while climate change (CLI) is the main contributor to declining LP (43.51%). The impact of CO2 fertilization is similar to that of LCC, whereas nitrogen deposition (NDE) has a minimal influence. Among human-driven factors, forest loss, cropland abandonment and deforestation for cultivation are the primary causes of declining LP. Conversely, forest expansion and reclamation of bare land for agriculture are the main contributors to increasing LP. Our findings demonstrate that while climate change remains a major challenge, human-driven land management strategies can play a pivotal role in restoring degraded land. The GGW initiative requires more coordinated, science-based strategies to achieve its full potential by 2030. By integrating climate adaptation, land restoration policies, and sustainable land-use practices, the GGW can enhance both ecological resilience and community livelihoods across the Sahel.Supplementary InformationThe online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1038/s41598-025-18963-2.

Microbial- and plant-derived carbons are critical sources of soil organic carbon (SOC), but the specific responses of soil amino sugars and lignin phenols to global change remain unclear. In this study, we conducted 3193 observations across 553 experiments aimed at investigating the potential role of amino sugars and lignin phenols in maintaining SOC accumulation in response to land-use change, nutrient additions, elevated C dioxide (eCO2), warming, and drought. The results showed that land restoration increased amino sugars (35.1%), glucosamine (53.8%), galactosamine (68.6%), muramic acid (33%), lignin phenols (79.3%), and vanillyl phenols (68%), whereas land degradation reduced these compounds, including syringyl. Nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) additions enhanced amino sugar, glucosamine, and muramic acid contents, whereas P addition selectively increased glucosamine content. N, P, and potassium additions increased glucosamine (16.8%), galactosamine (17.3%), muramic acid (21.6%), and lignin phenol (4.8%) contents, while eCO2 only increased amino sugar content by 14.6%. Warming increased glucosamine and muramic acid contents, whereas drought had no effect on amino sugar and lignin phenol contents. Soil amino sugars played a more critical role than lignin phenols in SOC accumulation, and their dynamics were influenced by soil nutrient availability and microbial communities under global change. These findings advanced our understanding of the dominant role of microbial residues in SOC accumulation mediated by the nutrient stoichiometry and microbial communities.

Gold or crops: Preferences for agricultural land restoration practices in gold-mined landscapes in northern Ethiopia

Dead-fallen shrubs exhibit beneficial effects in enhancing soil microbial activity and soil fertility in arid sandy land restoration.

Saw palmetto is a palm of high ornamental and land restoration value with the potential for commercial production as a result of its phytotherapeutic properties. It is native to the southeastern United States, where green- and silver-leaved forms are found. Nursery production of saw palmetto is based on seed germination. However, seed germination is slow and uneven. Based on communications with nursery growers, deeper seed placement in the substrate yields taller seedlings at marketable size in a shorter period. We investigated the influence of sowing seed depths (1, 2, 4, 6, and 8 cm) on the germination and seedling growth of silver and green forms of saw palmetto. Green saw palmetto seeds germinated 60 days earlier than silver saw palmetto seeds, although final germination percentages were similar (84% and 82%, respectively). Sowing depth influenced significantly the required seed rate overage, with shallow depths (1 cm) necessitating a 30% to 45% increase in seed quantity to compensate for reduced seedling production, whereas sowing at 4 cm reduced overage to 5% to 6%, optimizing seed use and reducing costs. Differences in growth parameters 1 year after sowing were statistically significant for 1-year-old seedlings, with silver plants performing better than green ones. Major differences occurred between the 1- and 8-cm sowing depths with regard to seedling and root length. Plants from seeds sown at 8 cm showed increased plant height and width, and reduced root length compared with those sown at 1 cm. Vigor indices of plants from deeper sowing (2, 4, 6, and 8 cm) were higher than those sown at 1 cm. We conclude that green saw palmetto seeds germinated earlier than silver, but final germination percentages were similar. In addition, sowing at 4 cm optimized seed use and costs, whereas deeper sowing improved plant vigor and growth but reduced root length.

In the field of agroforestry, Theobroma cacao, Neolamarckia cadamba, and Falcataria moluccana are commonly employed to assess growth performance; however, research on their above-ground and below-ground characteristics remains limited. This study aimed to evaluate the growth performance and root distribution of these species within both monocropping and intercropping systems in Madai, Kunak, Sabah, for a six-month period. The study utilised 20 plots arranged in a Randomized Complete Block Design with five treatments: monocropping of T. cacao, N. cadamba, and F. moluccana, as well as intercropping combinations of N. cadamba with T. cacao and F. moluccana with T. cacao. Key metrics measured included height and diameter for above-ground growth, along with Specific Root Length (SRL), Root Length Density (RLD), and Root Biomass (RB) for below-ground growth. The findings indicated that in monocropping, T. cacao achieved an average height of 3.79 m and F. moluccana 5.11 m, while intercropping combinations exhibited various heights. Overall, T. cacao demonstrated robust height and root growth in monocropping systems, with no significant differences observed between above-ground and below-ground parameters.

ABSTRACTIntroducing alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) into degraded lands is a cost‐effective strategy to restore ecosystem functioning. However, the long‐term persistence of alfalfa can diminish productivity and disrupt soil nutrient balance, raising concerns about the sustainability of these systems. Here, we quantified soil carbon (C), nitrogen (N), and phosphorus (P) stoichiometry, identified its environmental determinants, and evaluated its role in regulating soil multifunctionality (SMF) across 112 alfalfa grassland sites on the Loess Plateau of China. Average soil C:N, C:P, and N:P ratios (0–20 cm) were 8.6 ± 0.8, 14.4 ± 4.5, and 1.7 ± 0.5, respectively. The C:P and N:P ratios were positively correlated with vegetation cover, aboveground biomass of native species, species richness, soil organic C, but not with alfalfa or total plant biomass. Structural equation modeling revealed that species richness, microbial biomass C, and soil moisture were the dominant drivers of soil C:P and N:P ratios. Soil stoichiometry, particularly the C:P ratio, exerted a stronger influence on SMF than alfalfa biomass, with both direct effects and indirect effects mediated through plant abundance and species richness. These findings identify soil stoichiometry as a key mechanism linking vegetation and microbial processes to SMF. We argue that improving soil stoichiometry—through practices such as balanced fertilization and enhanced plant diversity—will be essential to optimize nutrient use efficiency and sustain soil functioning in alfalfa grasslands.

The article is devoted to the urgent problem of restoration of disturbed lands in the Arctic zone of Russia, where the area of degraded territories exceeds 86 thousand hectares. The purpose of the study is to develop scientifically based approaches to reclamation for key regions: Murmansk, Arkhangelsk regions and the Republic of Karelia. Based on the analysis of reforestation data (2007-2024) and generalization of domestic experience, it is proved that the success of reclamation depends on taking into account regional specifics. Priority areas of work have been identified for each region, from sanitary and hygienic to forestry. The most effective technologies are the planting of standard planting material (pine, spruce, birch, resistant in-troduced plants) and aerial sowing in hard–to-reach areas with seeding rates of 1.0-1.8 kg/ha. The methods of soil preparation, the composition of grass mixtures and the need for subsequent care are described in detail. The results of the work are of practical value for forestry authorities and enterprises operating in the Arctic. The integrated application of the proposed measures will improve the efficiency of ecosystem restoration and ensure the sustainable development of the region.

Biocrust effects on soil stability and hydrodynamic erosion in southern China's red soil.

Time sequence of non-grain cultivated land restoration in Shandong Peninsula urban agglomeration, China