Women's Labor Force Participation Research Articles

Boşanmanın Kadın İstihdamına Etkisi: Türkiye İçin Bölgesel Verilere Dayalı Bir Uygulama

The issue of employability is an important macroeconomic matter for today's economies. Especially, some policies aimed at increasing women's employment are being applied by many countries and various policy instruments are trying to eliminate the factors affecting women's employment. In this study investigated on women's employment is the effect and importance of divorce, which is expressed as one of the important socio-economic and cultural factors affecting women labor force participation. For this purpose, the relationships between divorce rates and female labor force participation rates were analyzed for Turkey within the content of 26 sub-regions. The findings of the study based on panel data analysis covering the period 2008-2021 presented the existence of positive and significant relationships between divorce rates and female labor force participation rates. This situation supports many studies in the literature between increasing divorce rates and women's employment. Its besides proves that the changes in the traditional social structure also support divorces and that increasing divorces force women to take more place in the labor market.

How Do Women Decide to Work in Pakistan?

The incidence of women labour force participation is very low in Pakistan. According to the Labour Force Survey, 1999-2000 female participation rate was merely 14 percent of the total labour force. Even though average annual growth rate of female labour force participation has been increasing slightly in Pakistan; it was 4 percent in 1980-99 and has gone up to 5.1 percent during 1995-98,1 however, this rate is still very low as compared to the other South Asian countries—42 percent in Bangladesh, 41 percent in Nepal, 32 percent in India and Bhutan, 37 percent in Sri Lanka [World Bank (2002)]. This paper is an attempt to identify household related factors that lead to women participation in the economic activities. This issue has been taken up in a number of other studies.2 The innovative aspect of this paper is that it relates women’s decision to participate in economic activities with their empowerment—who makes the decision to participate in the labour force—whether it is the women themselves or others. We would like to state at the very onset that this paper is a first cut to explore the issues of women’s participation in economic activities and their and empowerment. We hope to get feedback in the conference to improve the technical aspects of this paper and explore other aspects of this issue.

WOMEN PARTICIPATION IN AGRICULTURE OF BANGLADESH

The majority of Bangladesh's population relies on agriculture for their livelihood. Almost half of Bangladesh's population works in agriculture, either directly or indirectly. Industry in the agricultural sector contributes 14.17 percent to GDP. Women's widespread but underrecognized involvement in the agricultural sector Women in rural areas are the unsung heroes of the economy. Women make up 18.3% of the workforce in agriculture and related occupations, while men make up 22.3%. Women's labor force participation increased by 192.84% from 1999-00 to 2016-17, compared to a rise of 55.97% for all workers. A decrease of 16.26% in male participation in agriculture has been observed during this time. Women's labor force participation in agriculture is inversely related to their level of education and access to electricity in rural areas. Information such as non-farming income, land size, and ownership status. There has been a rise in the number of women working in agriculture, but they continue to face barriers to education and advancement in the field. Women do a disproportionate amount of work in agriculture but are rarely credited for their efforts. Bangladesh received a 0.66 on the WEAI, with a 5DE score indicating that 75% of women are not empowered and a GPI score indicating that 61.22% of women do not have gender parity. Increasing women's access to production inputs, educating women to develop confidence in carrying out agricultural businesses, and improving extension workers' skills in handling female farmer groups are all necessary initiatives for empowering women in the agricultural sector. The ease with which women can perform agricultural tasks requires the attention of both the government and conscientious citizens.

Paternity leave, family dynamics, and children's behavior in Singapore

AbstractObjectiveConduct the first empirical study to examine whether a father taking paternity leave is related to children's social–emotional development in Asia and the extent to which family dynamics mediate this relationship.BackgroundThe provision of paid paternity leave in Asia is relatively recent compared to many western societies. The impact of this policy on family dynamics and children's well‐being in Asia, where patriarchal ideology is more prevalent and women's labor force participation is high, is understudied. This study investigates this relationship in Singapore where government‐paid paternity leave was initiated in 2013.MethodThis study uses data from the Singapore Longitudinal Early Development Study which consists of 3895 children aged under 7. Multivariate regressions and propensity score matching analyses are conducted to assess the relationships between paternity leave‐taking, family dynamics, and children's behavioral outcomes. The KHB method is used to test the mediation effects of family dynamics.ResultsA 2‐week or longer paternity leave is significantly associated with lower family conflicts, mothers' parenting aggravation, higher marital satisfaction, fathers' involvement, and closer father–child relations. Paternity leave‐taking, mediated through positive family dynamics, is significantly associated with lower behavior problems in children.ConclusionRelatively short paternity leave (2 weeks) can benefit both family dynamics and children's social–emotional outcomes. These results have implications for policies that aim to enhance work‐family life balance and gender equality in society.

Gender and Work Patterns in Indian Cities: A Socio-Spatial Analysis

Using an original household survey conducted in Hyderabad and Mumbai that identifies intra-city spatial coordinates of residents, this study presents a socio-spatial analysis of gender and paid work. The results show that the ease of movement through the city, allocation of care work-related considerations and educational attainment are all crucial to understanding the labor force participation patterns of urban women in India. A gender lens identifies key facets of access and mobility characterizing urbanization in developing countries. Spatial heterogeneity of residence has very different outcomes for the labor force participation of women and men. HIGHLIGHTS Gender and city geographies mutually shape each other. Women’s labor force participation varies across and within Indian cities; men’s labor force participation is nearly uniform. Women’s paid work is higher in cities that have women-friendly transportation. Women’s paid work is higher in sub-city zones with superior transportation facilities for all. Policies that ease care or commuting burdens improve women’s participation in the labor force.

Gender Budgeting and its Outcome on Women Labour Force Participation in Unorganized sector

Unorganized sector always plays a vital role in terms of providing employment opportunities to a large segment of the workforce in India. Near about 92% of the total employment in the Indian economy during the period 1999-2000 was accounted for by the unorganized/informal sector (NSSO 55th Round 1999-2000). In most states the share of informal workers is approximately the same as the national average. Female work participation has always been low at 26.97% compared to 52% of men (World Bank Report, March 2018). The problem is that women have always been at work; only the definitions of work and work plan have never been defined or realistic to include their contribution to the economy and the society. In order to deal with gender disparity and bring efficacy in women labour force participation, Gender Budgeting was started in India in 2004. However, the outcomes show that their condition has improved in formal sector but in informal sector the working conditions has not much improved. The aim of this paper is to evaluate some of the new initiatives taken by Government of India in Public Economics in reference to Gender budgeting. It relates to government expenditure in welfare measures for the upliftment of women labour force participation in organized sector. The researchers tried to find out the outcomes of gender budgeting by critically evaluating the changing pattern of Indian working women in the unorganized sector and find out the condition of health, safety and well- being of working women in unorganized sector of India.

Whose unemployment hurts more? Joblessness and subjective well-being in U.S. married couples

While heterosexually married women's labor force participation has increased, their careers may still take a back seat to their husbands' careers. This article examines the effects of unemployment on the subjective well-being of husbands and wives in the U.S., including effects of one spouse's unemployment on the other spouse's well-being. I use 21st century longitudinal data with well-validated measures of subjective well-being capturing negative affect (psychological distress) and cognitive well-being (life satisfaction). Consistent with theories of gender deviation, the results of this analysis indicate that men's unemployment negatively affects their wives' affective and cognitive well-being, but women's unemployment has no significant effects on their husbands' well-being. Additionally, own unemployment has a larger negative effect on men's than on women's subjective well-being. These findings indicate that the male breadwinner model and its associated conditionings continue to shape men's and women's subjective, internal responses to unemployment.

The gender division of paid work over family formation: Variation by couples' migration background.

Although the gender gap in labour force participation has narrowed considerably in many European countries, life course scholars have shown that the transition to parenthood exacerbates gender inequality in couples' division of paid work. Hitherto, variation by migration background has received limited attention in research on the effect of parenthood on couples' gender division of paid work. This is remarkable given that such heterogeneity is theoretically informative on differential interconnectedness of life course events, but may also inform policy makers on the life course transitions that induce migrant-native differentials in women's labour force participation. This study adopts a life course perspective and uses longitudinal microdata from Belgian social security registers to examine variation in couples' gender division of paid work around family formation by migration background. Taking into account couples' migration background - by considering the origin group and migrant generation of both partners - we identify four patterns of gender dynamics around family formation in couples where at least one partner is of migrant origin. These four patterns emerge from (dis)similarities with native couples with respect to their pre-birth division of paid work on the one hand and their changes in this division around family formation on the other hand. These results highlight that combining an account of couples' division of paid work prior to the birth of a first child with a perspective focussing on how the division of paid work changes around family formation is necessary for a thorough understanding of variation by migration background.

What determines women's labor supply? The role of home productivity and social norms

AbstractWe highlight the role of home productivity and social norms in explaining the gender gap in labor force participation (LFP), and the non-monotonic relationship of women's LFP with their education in India. We construct a model of couples’ time allocation decisions allowing for both market and home productivity to improve with own education. Incorporating individual preference to produce a minimum level of the home good due to social norms, we show that our theoretical model can closely replicate the U-shaped relationship between women's education and their labor supply. Our analysis suggests that home productivity, along with social benchmarks on couples’ time allocation to home good, can be critical determinants of women's labor supply in developing countries.

Militarization, women's labor force participation, and gender inequality: Evidence from global data

This study empirically investigates the link between militarization and women's labor force participation rate, and gender inequality. Applying a panel cointegration method for 74 countries for 1990–2017, the study demonstrates the impact of militarization for different country groups, showing a significant negative association between indicators of militarization and women's labor force participation, and gender equality. The findings suggest that militarization is likely to decrease women's labor force participation and increase gender inequality. When considered with the previous literature, an implication of the study is that militarization contributes to lower economic growth via the channel of higher gender inequality.

Childcare and Mothers’ Labor Market Outcomes in Lower- and Middle-Income Countries

Abstract Improving women's labor force participation and the quality of their employment can boost economic growth and support poverty and inequality reduction; thus, it is highly pertinent for the development agenda. However, existing systematic reviews on female labor market outcomes and childcare, which can arguably improve these outcomes, are focused on developed countries. We review 22 studies which plausibly identify the causal impact of institutional childcare on maternal labor market outcomes in lower-and-middle income countries. All but one study finds positive impacts on the extensive or intensive margin of maternal labor market outcomes, which aligns with findings from developed countries. We further analyze aspects of childcare design, including hours, ages of children, coordination with other childcare services that may increase the impacts on maternal labor market outcomes. We conclude with a discussion of directions for future research.

Labor force status as a buffer against mortality risks associated with alcohol consumption: A study of adult U.S. women, 2001–2015

The association between women's labor force participation, their alcohol consumption patterns, and mortality risk is unclear. This study assessed all-cause mortality risk among women in the United States, considering their labor force status and alcohol drinking. This study used discrete-time hazard models to examine this association using 2001–2015 National Health Interview Survey-Linked Mortality Files (NHIS-LMF) data (n = 147,714) for women aged 25 to 65 with 5725 deaths in this sample. Complex survey-weighted adjustments and E-values calculations were used to limit quantitative and observational biases. Alcohol consumption and labor force status together lead to substantial mortality risks. There is a statistically significant mortality risk among unemployed women (HR 2.15, 95% CI 1.18–3.91) and women not in labor force (HR 2.38, 95% CI 1.87–3.01). In the stratified models, non-Hispanic blacks (HR 1.48, 95% CI 1.30–1.67) and Asians (HR 1.93, 95% CI 1.54–2.44) have heightened mortality risks borne out of employment. Women with higher psychological distress have a 26% higher risk of all-cause mortality when not in labor force. With the help of cross-sectional data, this study demonstrates that women not in labor force and unemployed women are more likely to be affected by their drinking habits, and their employment status is associated with lower mortality risk. Further research should be focused on cause-specific mortality, gender roles and norms, reasons for unemployment, and comorbidities using more recent data, causal modeling techniques, and an extended mortality follow-up period.

Female Labour Force Participation and the Economic Development in Egypt

Economic literature highlights the vital role that women can play in enhancing the economic development of nations. However, there is still gender inequality in developing countries, especially in education and labour market participation. Although women represent nearly half of the population in Egypt, their labour force participation rate is still very low compared to men. This paper's primary goal is to investigate the short and long-run associations between female labour force participation and Egypt's GDP growth rate. The study used annual time series data from 1990-2019, where the vector error correction model (VECM) was employed. The study found that female labour force participation and the gross fixed capital formation growth rate can enhance the GDP growth rate in the long run. Nevertheless, there is no statistically significant relationship in the short run. This paper's main recommendations are that the Egyptian government needs to implement policies that encourage women's labour force participation and decrease gender inequality. These policies could be changes in legislation, modernization of social norms, Job flexibility, and increasing access to childcare. Moreover, they need to focus on both the demand and supply sides of the quality of female labour force participation by matching the women’s education with the creation of suitable jobs.

Determinants of Women Labor Force Participation: In Case of Boke Tiko Town

Women labor force participation is vital for the enhancement and socio-economic development of a nation. This study had attempted to portray the determinants of women labor force participation in Boke Tiko town. The study was conducted by using primary and secondary sources of data. Primary data was gathered through questionnaire method from 99 sample respondents selected via simple random sampling technique. Secondary data were observed from different written materials such as published and unpublished books. To analyze the data, researchers had used both descriptive analysis techniques and econometric model of binary logistic regression. The result of the study indicated that women labour force participation was significantly determined by marital status, educational level, presence of young children and income level of the household. The study had recommended the necessity of giving emphasis for the expansion of family planning usage, creating work opportunities for educated women, and boosting the size of economic activities which could increase income level of women in the study area.

Early career gender wage gaps among university graduates in Russia

PurposeThe aim of the research is to estimate the level of the early career gender wage gap in Russia, its evolution during the early stages of a career, gender segregation and discrimination among university graduates, and to identify factors which explain early career gender differences in pay. Special emphasis is placed on assessing the contribution of horizontal segregation (inequal gender distribution in fields of studies and industries of employment) to early-career gender inequality.Design/methodology/approachThe study is based on a comprehensive and nationally representative survey of university graduates, carried out by Russian Federal State Statistics Service in 2016 (VTR Rosstat). The authors use Mincer OLS regressions for the analysis of the determinants of gender differences in pay. To explain the factors which form the gender gap, the authors use the Oaxaca-Blinder and Neumark gender gap decompositions, including detailed wage gap decompositions and decompositions by fields of study. For the analysis of differences in gender gap across wage distribution, quantile regressions and quantile decompositions based on recentered influence functions (RIFs) are used.FindingsThe study found significant gender differences in the early-career salaries of university graduates. Regression analysis confirms the presence of a 20% early-career gender wage gap. This gender wage gap is to a great extent can be explained by horizontal segregation: women are concentrated in fields of study and industries which are relatively low paid. More than half of the gender gap remains unexplained. The analysis of the evolution of the gender wage gap shows that it appears right after graduation and increases over time. A quantile decomposition reveals that, in low paid jobs, females experience less gender inequality than in better paid jobs.Social implicationsThe analysis has some important policy implications. Previously, gender equality policies were mainly related to the elimination of gender discrimination at work, including positive discrimination programs in a selection of candidates to job openings and programs of promotion; programs which ease women labour force participation through flexible jobs; programs of human capital accumulation, which implied gender equality in access to higher education and encouraged women to get higher education, which was especially relevant for many developing countries. The analysis of Russia, a country with gender equality in access to higher education, shows that the early career gender gap exists right after graduation, and the main explanatory factor is gender segregation by field of study and industry, in other words, the gender wage gap to a high extent is related to self-selection of women in low-paid fields of study. To address this, new policies related to gender inequality in choice of fields of studies are needed.Originality/valueIt has been frequently stated that gender inequality appears either due to inequality in access to higher education or after maternity leave. Using large nationally representative dataset on university graduates, we show that gender equality in education does not necessarily lead to gender equality in the labour market. Unlike many studies, we show that the gender gap in Russia appears not after maternity leave and due to marital decisions of women, but in the earliest stages of their career, right after graduation, due to horizontal segregation (selection of women in relatively low-paid fields of study and consequently industries).

Women's labor force participation in insurgency and ethno-religious conflict: the cases of Aceh and Ambon

ABSTRACT This article explores changes in patterns of labor participation in two types of conflict settings in Indonesia: the insurgency in Aceh and the ethno-religious conflict in Ambon, Maluku. It brings into view interactions between gender on the one hand, and religion, age, social class, and ethnicity on the other, while also taking into consideration regional economies. I show how intersectional dynamics set in motion by different types of conflict create different patterns of labor force participation. Women increased their economic activity in both conflicts but became breadwinners only in a few specific contexts. Moreover, their increased economic activity was sometimes experienced as hardship and sometimes as empowerment. After the conflict, many women in Aceh returned to the domestic sphere in the name of Sharia law, whereas many in Ambon remained economically active. I argue that different types of conflict in different economic contexts and the associated differences in the relationships between gender, religion, age, social class, and ethnicity help to explain this variation in outcomes.

The role of care and the local economy in women’s labour force participation: evidence from Mexico and Colombia in the pandemic era

ABSTRACT Women face disproportionate care burdens on their time because of traditional gender roles, lack of public policies supporting them and the lack of government services for satisfying society's care needs. This unequal distribution of care responsibilities reduces their opportunities to fully participate in labour markets. We argue that all else equal, women's physical proximity to affordable care services is key to determining their accessibility to them. In addition, services may have different effects on women's labour force participation (LFP), depending on their care responsibilities and other characteristics of their social and economic local conditions, such as size and type of economic output. We use geospatial analysis to explore the relationship between the local supply of care services and women's LFP. We use the population census and the intercensal population survey of Mexico, together with data from economic censuses and directories of care and financial services. We also develop an exploratory data analysis model for the Colombian case. We find that, given gender roles in care provision and women's accessibility to economic sectors, the supply of care services and the type of local economies are quite significant in determining their LFP, regardless of their educational level. Accordingly, mere investment in care services may not be enough since the economic output and type of activities also interfere with LFP. Besides, this effect increased considerably during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Development level of hosting areas and the impact of refugees on natives’ labor market outcomes in Turkey

We examine how the impact of refugees on natives’ labor market outcomes varies by the development level of hosting areas, which has important implications for the optimal allocation of refugees across regions and countries. For this purpose, in the context of the largest refugee group in the world in a single country, Syrian refugees in Turkey, we exploit the significant variation in the development level across regions of Turkey, several of which host a substantial number of refugees. We find that the impact of refugees on natives’ labor market outcomes becomes significantly less adverse as the regional development level rises. For instance, the adverse effects of the refugee shock on women's employment and labor force participation observed at the mean level of development vanish at high levels of development. Moreover, while the refugee impact on men's employment is negative for the least developed regions, it is positive for highly developed regions. Our findings imply that developed regions and countries are better positioned to protect their local population from the short-term adverse effects of refugees in the labor market.

Constrained by Choice - An Assessment of the Challenging Barriers of Women in Workforce

The status of women in modem India is a sort of paradox. If on one side she is at the peak of ladder of success, on the other hand, she is mutely suffering the barriers afflicted. As compared with past, women in modem times have achieved a lot but in reality, they have to still travel a long way. Some researchers had focused on differences on career progress of women, identifying reasons like less education, seniority, training and experience. Some studies have also indicated that the women managers are confronted with stractural barriers. In career choices women tend to be in stereotypically feminine professions and reflect lower levels of career aspirations, educational attainment, and career achievement compared with those of men in the same intellectual level. Although women's labour force participation still differs greatly from men, mainly because of socio - economic disadvantages. This research article aims to study the choices of women in different milestones of her life and the road blocks faced at every stage, with the success or the failure factor which necessitated the decision. An empirical study has been conducted among the married working mothers' women in academia to identify the above said factors influencing the choices of women. A sample size of 125 was selected using convenience sampling technique. The primary data was collected using questionnaire. The choices of women at every stage were studied and the factors influencing both supportive as well as those acting as barriers were studied. The influence of the demographic factors on the choices of women is also revealed using the analysis of variance tool. Factors like education level of the parent, income level of the family, rural or the urban background, were studied and the results proved that there is significant difference in the choices women make because of the above said factors. The suggestions and the conclusion have been derived from the findings of the study is enumerated in detail in the study.

State work–family contexts and the wage gap by gender and parenthood

AbstractObjectiveThis article examines the association between state‐level work–family resources and earnings disparities by gender and parenthood.BackgroundThe wage gap between childless men and women in the United States has narrowed, but the gap between mothers and fathers remains robust. Gendered division of labor and reduced labor force participation of women around childbirth have been raised as underlying causes. In the absence of national support, some states and migrant domestic workers have been filling the care gap, but it is unclear whether these factors are associated with the wage gap.MethodIndividual‐level data from the 2012 American Community Survey were merged with state‐level data collected for 2010. Multilevel linear regression models were used to explore variation in earnings across states, accounting for compositional differences and selection into the labor force.ResultsTemporary Disability Insurance, which enables new birth mothers to take paid leave, was robustly associated with narrower gaps between mothers and fathers. Unpaid private‐sector leave expansion and more intensive globalization of domestic work were associated with narrower gender wage gaps among parents with lower education. Provision of Head Start supplemental funding was associated with narrower wage gaps between mothers and fathers with higher education.ConclusionsAlthough mothers earned more in states with more work–family resources, the wage gap remained mostly unchanged because fathers similarly earned more in states with better work–family context.ImplicationsThe results reflect the fragmented and incomplete nature of work–family support in the United States and calls for more comprehensive intervention strategies to reduce the wage gap.