L2 Utterances Research Articles

What contributes to fluent L2 speech? Examining cognitive and utterance fluency link with underlying L2 collocational processing speed and accuracy

AbstractSecond language (L2) fluency research has suggested that a range of linguistic knowledge and processing speed serve as cognitive fluency (CF) underlying L2 utterance fluency (UF). Building on prior CF-UF link studies, this study explored L2 collocational processing speed and accuracy as underlying CF measures. This study also explored the phrasal frequency effect on the relationship between collocational processing speed and UF to test whether the processing speed of higher-frequency collocations is more strongly related to UF. A total of 108 Japanese university students completed a phrasal acceptability judgment task with adjective–noun collocations pooled from the Academic Collocation List. Speech was elicited in an argumentative speech task, and UF measures were computed based on speed, breakdown, and repair fluency. The results revealed that the collocational processing speed was weakly tied to articulation rate and mid-clause and end-clause silent pause ratio (rho = |.271–.322|), while the collocational processing accuracy was weakly to moderately tied to most UF measures except filled pause ratio (rho = |.281–.368|). The collocation frequency moderated the relationship between the processing speed and UF, suggesting that high-frequency collocations served as a proxy for automaticity in speech production. Implications for CF-UF link research are discussed.

The moderating role of L2 proficiency in the predictive power of L1 fluency on L2 utterance fluency

The current study examined the extent to which first language (L1) utterance fluency measures can predict second language (L2) fluency and how L2 proficiency moderates the relationship between L1 and L2 fluency. A total of 104 Japanese-speaking learners of English completed different argumentative speech tasks in their L1 and L2. Their speaking performance was analysed using measures of speed, breakdown, and repair fluency. L2 proficiency was operationalised as cognitive fluency. Two factor scores of cognitive fluency—linguistic resources and processing speed—were computed based on performance in a set of linguistic knowledge tests capturing vocabulary knowledge, morphosyntactic processing, and articulatory skills. A series of generalised linear mixed-effects models revealed small-to-moderate effect sizes for the predictive power of L1 utterance fluency measures on their L2 counterparts. Moderator effects of L2 proficiency were found only in speed fluency measures. The relationship between L1 and L2 speed fluency was weaker for L2 learners with wider L2 linguistic resources. Conversely, for those with faster L2 processing speed, the L1-L2 link tended to be stronger. These findings indicate that the L1-L2 fluency link is subject to the complex interplay of phonological differences between learners’ L1 and L2 and their L2 proficiency, offering implications for diagnostic speaking assessment.

Longitudinal development of second language utterance fluency, cognitive fluency, and their relationship

AbstractThe development of L2 utterance fluency has been extensively researched, whereas that of cognitive fluency has rarely been examined. This study investigated the longitudinal development of L2 utterance and cognitive fluency and their relationship. Thirty-one Chinese learners of English completed speaking tasks and a set of tasks for cognitive fluency before and after 5 months’ study abroad. The results showed that participants made a significant improvement in mean syllable duration, end-clause pause frequency, and the speed of syntactic encoding and articulation but not in mid-clause pause frequency or lexical retrieval speed. Mixed-effects modeling confirmed a significant relationship between syntactic encoding speed and mean syllable duration and mid-clause pausing. Furthermore, the significant relationships were maintained over time. The findings highlight (a) the differences between mid-clause and end-clause pausing in terms of their developmental patterns and relationship with cognitive fluency and (b) a significant role of syntactic encoding speed in L2 utterance fluency.

After Self-Imitation Prosodic Training L2 Learners Converge Prosodically to the Native Speakers

Little attention is paid to prosody in second language (L2) instruction, but computer-assisted pronunciation training (CAPT) offers learners solutions to improve the perception and production of L2 suprasegmentals. In this study, we extend with acoustic analysis a previous research showing the effectiveness of self-imitation training on prosodic improvements of Japanese learners of Italian. In light of the increased degree of correct match between intended and perceived pragmatic functions (e.g., speech acts), in this study, we aimed at quantifying the degree of prosodic convergence towards L1 Italian speakers used as a model for self-imitation training. To measure convergence, we calculated the difference in duration, F0 mean, and F0 max syllable-wise between L1 utterances and the corresponding L2 utterances produced before and after training. The results showed that after self-imitation training, L2 learners converged to the L1 speakers. The extent of the effect, however, varied based on the speech act, the acoustic measure, and the distance between L1 and L2 speakers before the training. The findings from perceptual and acoustic investigations, taken together, show the potential of self-imitation prosodic training as a valuable tool to help L2 learners communicate more effectively.

Zooming into the L2 Speech Fluency Markers of Anxious and Non-Anxious Advanced L2 Learners – an Extreme Case Sampling Report

The study examines selected temporal markers of L2 utterance fluency in the speech of advanced L2 learners who exhibit high (HLA) and low (LLA) language anxiety levels. Out of the pool of 59 participants, six HLA and six LLA individuals were selected for an in-depth analysis on the basis of their scores on the Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (the FLCAS) (Horwitz, Horwitz, & Cope, 1986). Speech samples from a monologue task were examined for selected L2 utterance fluency measures: filled (FP) and silent pause (SP) frequency, mean length of silent pause (MLSP), articulation rate (AR), speech rate (SR), and mean length of run (MLR). The results provided insights into the L2 speech fluency profiles of anxious and non-anxious individuals. The analysis disclosed relatively higher frequency and disparate application of FPs, slower speed of speech, and more varied profiles in MLR in the HLA group as compared to the LLA group. The findings yield pedagogical and methodological implications.

The Poster Carousel in theESLClassroom: What Happens to Learners'L2Fluency During Same and Parallel‐Task Repetition?

AbstractThis paper reports on the impact of an English as a Second Language (ESL) speaking activity—the poster carousel—on English learners' second language (L2) fluency. Two versions of the poster carousel were developed to observe the effect of talking about (a) the same poster three times (same‐task repetition) or (b) three different posters (parallel‐task repetition). 46 ESL learners took part, and their performances were audio‐recorded, transcribed, and analyzed using PRAAT to detail their L2 utterance fluency. The findings suggest that learners were more fluent during repeated performances in thesame‐task repetitionposter carousel group. No changes in fluency were observed for theparallel‐task repetitionposter carousel group. A detailed case study explores these observed fluency increases in the same‐task repetition group and generates further hypotheses for empirical exploration. Some observations are made which relate to the selection of fluency measures in L2 fluency research.

A mixed-methods study on the effects of manipulated speaking anxiety on L2 utterance and L2 cognitive fluency

A mixed-methods study on the effects of manipulated speaking anxiety on L2 utterance and L2 cognitive fluency

How does learners’ L2 utterance fluency relate to their L1? A meta‐analysis

AbstractUnraveling how learners’ L2 fluency performance relates to their L1 is crucial for promoting L2 speaking assessment. Despite the consensus that learners’ L1 and L2 are correlated in several measures of utterance fluency, there have been variations in the correlation strength resulting from methodological differences. The current meta‐analysis aims to present an overall picture of the L1–L2 fluency relationship and investigate the moderating effect of methodological factors. We identified 16 studies with 137 effect sizes and 714 participants. Through a multi‐level meta‐analysis, we calculated the aggregate effect sizes of the relationship between L1 and L2 fluency and examined the potential moderating effect of five learner and task variables. The overall correlation was strongest in L1 and L2 breakdown fluency, followed by speed and composite fluency, and weakest in repair fluency. Based on the results of the moderator analyses, we assume that the relationship between L1 and L2 composite fluency may be affected by L2 learning context, task type, and task consistency. The findings have implications for future research design and L2 fluency assessment.

Predicting L2-Spanish fluency from L1-English fluency and L2 proficiency: A conceptual replication

AbstractThis study conceptually replicated Huensch and Tracy-Ventura’s (2017) analysis of the relationship between L1 and L2 utterance fluency with adult L1-English learners of Spanish. Data from 88 participants were analyzed to explore the proportion of the variance in L2 fluency measures that can be attributed to the corresponding L1 measures, and the relative weights of L1 fluency and L2 proficiency as predictors of L2 fluency. This study applied the same fluency and proficiency constructs and operationalizations as the original study, but differed in task type and learners’ L2 proficiency. Results were most similar for speed and repair frequency, and for silent pause duration. Findings concerning silent and filled pause frequency differed. Combined, the studies show that some L1-L2 fluency relationships are relatively stable across proficiency levels, task type, and learning context.

An Essay on Investigating Factors Influencing Comprehensibility of World Englishes by Critically Evaluating Studies in the Domain

This paper uncovers the factors that influence comprehensibility – a construct predominantly the focus of Applied Linguistics research due to the dual role that speakers and listeners play in interpreting meaning. The essay discusses the factors highlighted by Smith & Nelson, (1985) outlined in their seminal paper. The critical evaluation of the research published in the domain extrapolates; comprehensibility between interlocutors – NS-NNS and NNS-NNS is not impeded by the accentedness of NNS’s, but predominantly by the lack of familiarity with it. NNS’s comprehensibility for both native listeners/raters and non-native listeners/raters improved with familiarity with the interlocutor or with the variety of World English (WE). Research also emphasized the factors: the interlocutor’s proficiency, L1 interference in L2 utterance, attitude towards WE’s, listeners/raters background, and effort to communicate greatly influenced comprehensibility. Awareness of the NNS’s accent made the listeners/raters overlook other errors of accent either segmental, supra segmental and even lexico-grammatical errors (Webb et al., 2016). In case of NS-NNS communication, it is an unrealistic expectation of the NNS to achieve native like accentedness to make them comprehensible. In high stakes tests like TOEFL and IELTS, the raters could improve L2 comprehensibility by gaining exposure to World English’s. Teachers are advised to include pronunciation in their syllabi. In particular, they could stress on teaching those segmental and supra segmental features which are characteristic of learner's L1 that influence erroneous L2 utterances.

Prior processing, foreign language classroom anxiety, and L2 fluency

Abstract This study examines the role of prior processing (understood as L2 use earlier in discourse) in moderating the contributions of foreign language classroom anxiety (FLCA) and proficiency to L2 utterance fluency. Two groups with comparable FLCA and proficiency scores performed the same narrative task. One group completed it in the absence of any other L2 task, and one group completed it immediately after responding to a similar but not identical prompt. The participants’ speech was analyzed using breakdown, speed, and repair fluency measures. Results showed that prior processing can reduce FLCA’s interference during L2 production. Unexpectedly, prior processing did not produce significant fluency gains associated with lexical retrieval and syntactic encoding. Instead, the patterns of variation revealed that more attention was paid to message conceptualization. This finding implies that prior processing can moderate FLCA’s role in L2 production because it alters the way attentional resources are allocated in subsequent performance.

Can explicit instruction of formulaic sequences enhance L2 oral fluency?

The role of formulaic language in enhancing L2 oral performance is largely discussed in the literature; however, there is a lack of instructional research. In order to address this issue, the present investigation examined effects of explicit learning and practice of formulaic sequences on L2 utterance fluency with advanced EAP learners. Two groups of freshmen students were assigned as the experimental group and the comparison group. For five weeks, the experimental group studied and practiced 80 formulaic sequences (FS) that frequently occur in spoken academic corpora. The comparison group, on the other hand, learned single academic vocabulary. Target vocabulary in both groups were introduced through concordances and practiced in communicative oral production tasks in a freshmen EAP program. L2 fluency was measured in terms of temporal qualities at three points and compared in a series of repeated measures ANCOVA analyses, with L1 fluency included as covariate. Results showed that both groups improved significantly in speed fluency from pretest to posttest and the FS group outperformed the comparison group in pruned speech rate, the global fluency measure. Effects of FS instruction were maintained on delayed posttest. Implications of the findings were discussed.

A Study on the Relation between Prosodic Phrasing and Syntactic Complexity

The purpose of the current study was to examine the relation between prosodic phrasing and syntactic complexity to better understand where speakers, especially L2 learners put prosodic phrase boundaries and pauses and thus to deepen the understanding of language planning and processing. To address these questions, this study carried out a study of phonetics-syntax interface focusing on IP and ip boundaries in L2 utterances. In addition, this study was interested in learning effects of the listen-and-repeat practice in relation to syntactic complexity and readability. This study found that in L2 production, syntactic complexity and readability had significant influences on realization of prosodic phrasing and pauses, which resulted in affecting the fluency. In addition, the pronunciation practice had a positive effect on prosodic realization so that L2 learners became less susceptible to syntactic complexity and readability.

Converting Foreign Accent Speech Without a Reference

Foreign accent conversion (FAC) is the problem of generating a synthetic voice that has the voice identity of a second-language (L2) learner and the pronunciation patterns of a native (L1) speaker. This synthetic voice has been referred to as a “golden-speaker” in the pronunciation-training literature. FAC is generally achieved by building a voice-conversion model that maps utterances from a source (L1) speaker onto the target (L2) speaker. As such, FAC requires that a reference utterance from the L1 speaker be available at synthesis time. This greatly restricts the application scope of the FAC system. In this work, we propose a “reference-free” FAC system that eliminates the need for reference L1 utterances at synthesis time, and transforms L2 utterances directly. The system is trained in two steps. First, a conventional FAC procedure is used to create a golden-speaker using utterances from a reference L1 speaker (which are then discarded) and the L2 speaker. Second, a pronunciation-correction model is trained to convert L2 utterances to match the golden-speaker utterances obtained in the first step. At synthesis time, the pronunciation-correction model directly transforms a novel L2 utterance into its golden-speaker counterpart. Our results show that the system reduces foreign accents in novel L2 utterances, achieving a 20.5% relative reduction in word-error-rate of an American English automatic speech recognizer and a 19% reduction in perceptual ratings of foreign accentedness obtained through listening tests. Over 73% of the listeners also rated golden-speaker utterances as having the same voice identity as the original L2 utterances.

Analyzing second language proficiency using wavelet-based prominence estimates

Prosodic characteristics, such as lexical and phrasal stress, are one of the most challenging features for second language (L2) speakers to learn. The ability to quantify language learners’ proficiency in terms of prosody can be of use to language teachers and improve the assessment of L2 speaking skills. Automatic assessment, however, requires reliable automatic analyses of prosodic features that allow for the comparison between the productions of L2 speech and reference samples. In this paper we investigate whether signal-based syllable prominence can be used to predict the prosodic competence of Finnish learners of Swedish. Syllable-level prominence was estimated for 180 L2 and 45 native (L1) utterances by a continuous wavelet transform analysis using combinations of f0, energy, and duration. The L2 utterances were graded by four expert assessors using the revised CEFR scale for prosodic features. Correlations of prominence estimates for L2 utterances with estimates for L1 utterances and linguistic stress patterns were used as a measure of prosodic proficiency of the L2 speakers. The results show that the level of agreement conceptualized in this way correlates significantly with the assessments of expert raters, providing strong support for the use of the wavelet-based prominence estimation techniques in computer-assisted assessment of L2 speaking skills.

Explaining second language utterance fluency: Contribution of cognitive fluency and first language utterance fluency

AbstractGiven that utterance fluency in a second language (L2) is associated with not only L2 cognitive fluency but also utterance fluency in the first language (L1), the study examined to what extent different measures of L2 utterance fluency can be explained by L2-specific cognitive fluency and/or the corresponding L1 utterance fluency measures. Utterance fluency measures on speed, breakdown, and repair phenomena and cognitive fluency measures including speed of lexical retrieval, syntactic encoding, and articulation were collected in the L1 and the L2 from 44 Chinese learners of English. The results show that most L2 utterance fluency measures are accounted for by the combination of L2-specific cognitive fluency measures and the equivalent L1 utterance fluency measure, whereas the number of mid-clause silent pauses and corrections, and mean syllable duration are largely explained by L2-specific cognitive measures, suggesting that they reflect L2-specific knowledge and cognitive skills. In contrast, mean silent pause duration and the number of filled pauses are mainly explained by the corresponding L1 utterance fluency measures.

Gestures in EFL classroom: Their relations with complexity, accuracy, and fluency in EFL teachers’ L2 utterances

This observational study was conducted to examine the effects of Japanese English as a foreign language (EFL) teachers' gestures on their second language (L2) utterances in EFL lessons. Two English lessons, one in a public senior high school and another in a private junior high school, taught by Japanese EFL teachers were video and audio recorded, transcribed, and analyzed. The teachers' L2 utterances were analyzed in terms of complexity, accuracy, and fluency to examine the following: (1) whether there is a difference between L2 utterances with and without gestures and (2) whether there is a difference in the effect of gestures according to their types. The results were as follows: (1) L2 utterances are more complex and fluent with gestures but accuracy was equal when accompanied by gestures and (2) there is a difference in the relations of some specific types of gestures to L2 utterances, with metaphoric gestures showing the highest scores in complexity and fluency and emblems the lowest. These findings suggest that teachers’ gestures play a crucial role in EFL classrooms, and therefore, should be given more consideration in L2 teacher education and training programs.

The role of auditory feedback in error-detection and correction in first and second language production

Speakers self-correct small variations they hear in their own speech, whether self-produced or experimentally induced perturbations to auditory feedback. In a first language (L1), phonetic categories and therefore auditory expectations are well-established, but in a second language (L2), lack of experience with new categories may interfere with the ability to detect and correct such deviations. We present two companion studies to test how English speakers learning French detect such variations in their auditory feedback in both L1 and L2. In one study, speakers uttered monosyllabic English and French words while simultaneously receiving different levels of masking noise to determine how access to auditory feedback information impacts speakers' ability to make online adjustments to self-produced speech. There was greater acoustic variability at the midpoint of utterances in L2 than in L1, regardless of noise condition, consistent with a differential use of auditory feedback information in the two languages. In a second study, speakers received altered auditory feedback. On one-third of trials, the vowel formants of produced words were shifted up or down, creating the perception of an error. We will compare correction of internally and externally generated error to understand speakers' sensitivity to auditory feedback in native and learned languages.

FORM, MEANING OR USE: WHAT WORD KNOWLEDGE ASPECT SHOULD L2 LEARNERS FOCUS ON DURING DICTIONARY LOOKUPS? ALL AT ONCE OR ONE AT A TIME?

A twenty-six-item questionnaire featuring 26 various word knowledge components (i.e. pieces of information relevant to a word) was handed to 90 Saudi EFL learners in order to a. identify the individual components that they were most and least interested in when performing dictionary lookups and b. pinpoint the word knowledge aspect (i.e. the strand or category to which individual word knowledge components relate to) to which their lookups were mostly oriented (i.e. form , meaning , or use ). The subjects reported an extreme interest in digital pronunciation of words (i.e. pronunciation embedded in digital dictionaries), L1 equivalents, spelling as well as the L2 first and basic meaning of words paralleled with a high negligence towards verb transitiveness, word origin, pronunciation in a paper dictionary, meanings of word affixes as well as stylistic usage of words. In terms of word knowledge aspects , their word lookups were reportedly far more oriented towards word meaning and word form with significantly far less attention paid to the aspect of word use. Hence, we believe, L2 learners should be cautioned when performing dictionary lookups against this notable disinterest in the aspect of word use as it would most likely, in the long run, have a negative effect on their communicative competence in the L2 (i.e. their knowledge about how and when to use L2 utterances appropriately). Finally, we suggest that this study be replicated in other contexts and countries of different L1 backgrounds so that we can ascertain whether the learners’ L1 background has any relevance to the interest and attention they would pay to the three word knowledge aspects when consulting dictionaries (e.g. would word use be given significantly more attention among EFL Latin learners than Arab learners?). Article visualizations:

Oralità, imitazione e apprendimento dell'italiano L2: il caso degli immigrati senegalesi scarsamente scolarizzati

Orality, imitation and L2 Italian learning The case of Senegalese immigrants with little or no education In this study, the focus is on a particular group of adult learners, namely Senagalese immigrants with an exclusively oral mother tongue (Wolof), a low level of schooling in a second language (French and/or Arabic), two possible school paths (French school or Koranic school) and an elementary level of oral competence of the Italian language. The research data present two different ways of managing the intonational parameters of Italian L2 which can be traced back to the different educational models to which they were exposed in their home country. Spectroacoustic analysis of an oral L2 Italian corpus, obtained through an imitation task, demonstrates a more efficient ability in managing intonation in short statements in L2 utterances of the Koranic school learners. This led to rethinking the teaching intervention in the classroom, adapting the approach to the skills developed in the limited educational path at home, with a re-evaluation of imitation and fixation activities comparable to pattern drills. The final result can be identified in the positive impact on the motivational levels in learning a second language with similar positive effects on reading and writing skills.