L2 Reading Research Articles

Reinforcing L2 reading comprehension through artificial intelligence intervention: refining engagement to foster self-regulated learning

This research delves into the transformative potential of artificial intelligence (AI) interventions in advancing reading comprehension, sparking learner engagement, and empowering self-regulated learning. It addresses a gap in the literature regarding innovative approaches to fostering these skills through emerging technologies. An AI-based intervention program was developed and implemented in a controlled classroom using a mixed-methods design with experimental and control groups. Pre- and post-assessments measured reading comprehension, engagement, and self-regulation, complemented by semi-structured interviews. The quantitative findings revealed significant improvements in reading comprehension and self-regulated learning behaviors, such as goal-setting, monitoring, and self-reflection, among the experimental group. The AI intervention also positively impacted engagement, evidenced by increased attentiveness, participation, and motivation. Also, the qualitative analysis indicated that 77% of students highlighted the AI platform’s effectiveness in fostering engagement and supporting self-regulation, with themes such as “increased attentiveness” and “enhanced motivation” frequently mentioned. Conversely, 23% of participants identified usability issues related to system responsiveness and interface design as barriers to maximizing the platform’s potential. These results provide educators, policymakers, and curriculum developers insights into integrating AI into effective educational practices.

The cognitive processing of nouns and verbs in second language reading: an eye-tracking study

Abstract This study explores the cognitive processing of nouns and verbs in second language (L2) reading, aiming to investigate the potential differences and their effects on comprehension performance. Twenty-five Chinese students read an English text while their eye movements were recorded. A reading comprehension test evaluated the participants’ L2 reading comprehension performance. The results reveal a significant difference in total reading time between nouns and verbs. Additionally, total reading time, gaze duration, and the number of fixations on both nouns and verbs are negatively correlated with L2 reading comprehension performance. These findings suggest that while the initial processing mechanisms of nouns and verbs may be similar, they diverge in late stages of processing.

Strategies and effectiveness of integrating teacher and peer scaffolding into an L2 reading programme

ABSTRACT This study investigates the practicality and effectiveness of integrating teacher scaffolding and peer scaffolding into an English as a Foreign Language (EFL) reading programme. To test students’ perceptions of the effectiveness of this reading programme, two feedback surveys were conducted, respectively, in the first half and the final stage of the programme. Data were also collected from students’ works, including pre-reading tasks and post-reading journal entries. The teacher’s reflective journal served as another lens examining the efficacy of this programme. Six steps of thematic analysis were taken to obtain initial codes, emergent themes and final themes out of the qualitative data. Findings of the study indicate that the teacher played a decisive role in designing the mechanism of the programme (the macro level), in which providing students with varied sharing space and multiple task options was of crucial importance. The design of activity procedures (the meso-level) was optimal for transfer of responsibility whereby peer scaffolding played a major role. At the collaborative interaction stage (the micro level), teacher and peer scaffolding both functioned as essentials although not as evident as shown in previous stages. Some evidence-based strategies were proposed to integrate teacher and peer scaffolding into L2 pedagogies.

Modeling the associations between L2 teacher support and EFL learners’ reading motivation: The mediating impact of reading enjoyment, anxiety, and boredom

The present study aimed to explore the association between 302 (93 males and 209 females) English as a foreign language (EFL) learners’ perceived teacher support (i.e., personal support and academic support) and their reading motivation. This inquiry also sought to assess the potential mediating influences of second or foreign language (L2) boredom, anxiety, and enjoyment on the interplay between the constructs under investigation. The results indicated a significantly strong and positive relationship between personal and academic teacher support and reading motivation. While L2 reading boredom and anxiety exhibited strong negative correlations with the two facets of teacher support, L2 enjoyment was positively correlated. Additionally, L2 reading enjoyment displayed a strong association with reading motivation. The results also revealed that over half of the variance in L2 reading motivation could be predicted by teacher support, along with the mediating influences of learner emotions. The findings are discussed in connection with educational theories, and implications are drawn for teaching.

Does Reading Performance Vary According to Available Working Memory Capacity and Syntactic Parsing Skills?

This study investigates the relationships among working memory (WM), syntactic parsing ability (SP), and L2 reading performance across varying proficiency levels. A cohort of 120 L1-Persian EFL learners was categorized into beginner, intermediate, and advanced proficiency groups based on their IELTS scores. Participants completed a reading span test, a sentence segmentation task, and a reading test to measure WM, SP, and L2 reading ability, respectively. Statistical analysis revealed significant differences in syntactic parsing and reading abilities across proficiency levels, with advanced learners outperforming their intermediate and beginner counterparts. Moreover, significant relationships were identified between WM, SP, and L2 reading performance among participants in the beginner group, while such relationships were not observed in the intermediate and advanced groups. Additionally, the results identified SP as a robust predictor of L2 reading performance, specifically within the beginner proficiency level, suggesting that syntactic parsing abilities substantially contribute to variations in L2 reading outcomes at this proficiency level. Focusing on the intricate interplay between cognitive resources and reading processes, these findings underscore the essential role of syntactic parsing in enhancing L2 reading comprehension among beginner learners, highlighting the necessity for targeted instructional strategies to support the development of these skills.

Retention of grammatical information by L1 and L2 readers: The role of form and meaning

Retention of grammatical information by L1 and L2 readers: The role of form and meaning

Determinants of L2 English Reading Proficiency among Thai Learners of English in Tertiary Education: A Multicomponent Perspective

Multicomponent perspectives on second language reading proficiency offer a contemporary understanding of reading and its development (e.g., Yamashita, 2022). In this web-based experiment, we investigated the relationship among L2 reading proficiency measures—reading comprehension, listening comprehension, reading fluency—and component reading skills in English, assessed through tests of vocabulary, grammar, and orthographic knowledge. A sample of 101 L2 learners from a Thai university participated, providing demographic and language background information and completing a survey regarding their motivation to perform well. As expected, reading and listening comprehension were strongly correlated. Moreover, a three-factor model emerged, with word-decoding skills, linguistic comprehension, and word-processing speed as latent constructs explaining just over half of the overall variance in L2 reading proficiency. Notably, component skills in English contributed more significantly to individual variability in reading and listening comprehension than to reading fluency. These findings suggest that while both comprehension and fluency are important facets of reading proficiency, a different set of skills may underlie reading fluency in a second language. The findings are discussed in relation to current theories of reading proficiency, with implications for L2 reading instruction considered.

Exploring the roles of L1 reading, L2 proficiency, strategy use and anxiety in L2 Reading comprehension

BackgroundSecond language (L2) reading is a complex process in which two languages constantly interact. L1 reading and L2 proficiency are two well‐acknowledged factors contributing to L2 reading comprehension. Other factors, such as strategy use and anxiety, might also predict L2 reading comprehension, but their roles have not been examined in the presence of L1 reading and L2 proficiency.MethodParticipants were 147 high school Chinese English as a foreign language (EFL) learners (mean age = 17.8, SD = 0.48). They were assessed on their L2 reading comprehension, L1 reading comprehension, L2 proficiency (L2 vocabulary and L2 syntactic knowledge), strategy use and reading anxiety.ResultsHierarchical regression model analyses showed that L1 reading significantly contributed to L2 reading comprehension in the presence of L2 proficiency. Strategy use and anxiety were significant predictors of L2 reading comprehension in the presence of L1 reading and L2 proficiency. Together, they accounted for 53% of the variance in L2 reading comprehension. L2 proficiency moderated the relations between L1 and L2 reading comprehension and strategy use and L2 reading comprehension but not the relation between anxiety and L2 reading comprehension.ConclusionsBesides the well‐acknowledged L1 reading and L2 proficiency, strategy use and anxiety were also significant predictors of L2 reading comprehension, stressing the importance of these cognitive and affective factors in L2 reading. By revealing the moderating role of L2 proficiency, these findings deepen our understanding of the nature of the relations between L1 and L2 reading comprehension, strategy use and L2 reading comprehension.

The effect of the global language context on bilingual language control during L1 reading

The effect of the global language context on bilingual language control during L1 reading

Effect of Morpheme Meaning Dominance in Compound Word Recognition: Evidence from L2 Readers of Chinese

In reading, rapid and reliable word recognition relies on high-quality representations at both the lexical and sublexical levels, with stable and flexible connections between form, sound, and meaning. Earlier studies suggested that meaning knowledge affects the formation and quality of orthographic representation in language learning, but the impact of morphemic meaning frequency on learners’ word recognition was not explored. This research examined second language (L2) Chinese readers’ recognition of compound words containing ambiguous morphemes. Using lexical decision tasks in a priming paradigm, we found that dominant primes (i.e., primes with morphemes encoding dominant meanings) facilitated L2 readers’ recognition of subordinate targets. We suggested that dominant meanings are associated with higher-quality orthographic representations in learners and dominant primes; thus, they facilitate readers’ recognition of orthographically and morphologically related subordinate targets. This study confirmed the role of sublexical constituents’ meaning variables in word recognition in language learning.

Investigating the Relationship Between Working Memory, Semantic Encoding, and L2 Reading Ability Across Proficiency Levels

ABSTRACT This study investigated the relationship between working memory (WM), semantic-encoding (SE) ability, and reading comprehension (RC) within the domain of second language acquisition (L2). 120 L1-Persian EFL learners were placed in three proficiency groups (beginning, intermediate, and advanced) based on their scores on the IELTS test. The participants engaged in a battery of cognitive tasks, including a reading span task, two semantic encoding (SE) tasks (sentence verification task and lexical access task), an L1-recall task, and a reading test. The scores and reaction times obtained from these measures were analyzed using a one-way ANOVA, a correlational analysis, and single regression analyses. The findings revealed significant differences in reading performance and semantic encoding skills across proficiency groups, with large effect sizes. Correlational analyses indicated a significant positive relationship between WM and RC, specifically in the beginner group. Moreover, WM was shown to correlate with the speed of SE in the beginner group, but not with its accuracy. Notably, SE speed correlated with RC performance, particularly under time-constrained conditions at lower proficiency levels. In the intermediate and advanced groups, working memory (WM) showed no correlation with reading comprehension (RC) or semantic encoding (SE). Conversely, both WM and SE speed were identified as strong predictors of L2 reading performance among learners with lower English proficiency. However, the study is not without its limitations, including a relatively small sample size, the absence of qualitative measures, and the potential influence of unassessed reading subskills such as grammar and vocabulary.

Connecting L2 reading emotions and writing performance through imaginative capacity in the story continuation writing task: A gender difference perspective

Connecting L2 reading emotions and writing performance through imaginative capacity in the story continuation writing task: A gender difference perspective

Exploring the Influence of Social Context on the Development of Swahili Reading Literacy Among Foreign Children in Zanzibar

This article was intended to explore the influence of social context in helping foreign children develop Swahili reading literacy. The study was guided by Marie Clay's Literacy Development Theory. A total of 28 informants participated, including 16 foreign children and 12 parents. The questionnaire method was used to gather information from parents in order to determine the social context of foreign children. Additionally, interviews were conducted with foreign children to gather information about the role of the social context in learning Swahili literacy skills. Through interviews, the article identified various elements of the social context such as Swahili books, digital literacy resources, interaction with friends, and parents' positive attitudes toward the Swahili language have influenced the development of reading literacy among foreign children. The study also found that parents' involvement in practicing Swahili reading and engaging in conversations in Swahili played a significant role in developing Swahili reading skills among foreign children. The article concludes that, even when the formal language learning environment is unstable, the social context in which a language learner resides, with access to language input, significantly contributes to proficiency in various language skills. Based on the findings of this article, it is recommended that aspects of the social context be given consideration by Second Language (L2) and Foreign Language (FL) educators as an essential pedagogical element in teaching L2 and FL reading literacy. Additionally, further research is recommended to investigate the role of social context in developing other L2 and FL literacy skills.

Text-belief Consistency Effect in L2 Reading Comprehension with News Articles

Text-belief Consistency Effect in L2 Reading Comprehension with News Articles

Learners’ behavioral engagement and performance on linguistically difficult L2 reading tasks: The effects of effort feedback, self-efficacy, and attributions

In many compulsory second language (L2) classrooms, learners routinely encounter linguistically difficult L2 reading tasks. However, it is unclear (1) how learners behaviorally engage and perform on such tasks, (2) what motivational characteristics predict their reactions, and (3) whether maladaptive learner reactions can be ameliorated. This study examined the role of two motivational constructs (attributions and self-efficacy) and a common teaching practice (effort feedback) in predicting and ameliorating learners’ behavioral engagement and performance on linguistically difficult L2 reading tasks. Japanese high school students ( N = 238) studying English were recruited for an experimental study and randomly assigned to either the treatment group ( n = 124) or the comparison group ( n = 114). Both groups first performed a linguistically difficult L2 reading task. Time on task was measured as a direct indicator of behavioral task engagement. They then rated the success or failure attributions of their task performance. Next, the treatment group received brief positive feedback highlighting effort attributions (i.e. effort feedback), while the comparison group did not receive any attributional feedback. Both groups then rated their levels of self-efficacy to perform a similar task. Lastly, both groups performed a follow-up linguistically difficult L2 reading task, and their time on task was recorded. Results showed that participants generally displayed low behavioral engagement and performed poorly on the initial task. Both the treatment and comparison groups experienced a significant decline in their behavioral engagement in the subsequent task, but the treatment group showed a small improvement in their subsequent task performance. The external controllability dimension of attributions positively predicted learners’ behavioral engagement on the subsequent task. These findings shed light on an unexplored territory of task engagement research that warrants further attention.

Self-regulated learning strategies in L1 and L2 reading

Self-regulated learning strategies in L1 and L2 reading

An Ecological Understanding of L2 Reading Motivation: The Case of Chinese Tertiary-Level Students in an Elective Extensive Reading Course

Previous studies have identified a range of learner factors and factors within more immediate contexts that affect students’ motivation in L2 extensive reading (ER) programs. However, much remains to be known about the effect of sociocultural factors on L2 reading motivation, especially in instructed ER settings. To address the issue, the paper adopted Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory to investigate factors impacting Chinese undergraduates’ L2 reading motivation in an elective ER course. Data were collected from semi-structured interviews, classroom observation and reading logs. In addition to factors identified by previous studies, our study further revealed that learner factors like characteristics, and contextual factors like past EFL learning experiences at the mesosystemic level, class time and course evaluation at the exosystemic level, collectivism and face concern at the macrosystemic level, and novelty at the chronosystemic level also exerted influence on students’ L2 reading motivation in the ER course. Pedagogical implications were suggested to improve ER instruction and cultivate students’ L2 reading motivation.

ACTIVATING BACKGROUND KNOWLEDGE: DIGITAL TOOLS IN THE PRE-READING STAGE OF FOREIGN LANGUAGE LESSONS

Developing reading skills, both in L1 and L2, is crucial for a quality education. In today's changing educational and professional landscape, students must meet traditional reading comprehension and 21st century digital literacy demands. Thus, there is an urgent need to incorporate digital approaches in reading instruction. This paper emphasizes the importance of activating students’ background knowledge before reading tasks, explores schema theory, and discusses the three main stages of a reading lesson. It highlights the pre-reading stage and examines some digital tools for enhancing pre-reading activities, with examples from an innovative class at Yoan Ekzarh Balgarski Secondary School - Shumen during the 2022/2023 and 2023/2024 school years.

Orthographic and Meaning Processes in Reading Chinese Compounds: Comparisons Between L1 and L2 Reading.

Research on alphabetic reading presents conflicting findings concerning the timing of orthographic and meaning processes in reading morphologically complex words. Chinese characters offer distinct visual cues for morphemes, enabling straightforward manipulations to examine orthographic and meaning processes. Guided by the Character-Word Dual Function model, we report four priming experiments that test how a reader's lexical quality impacts the emergence of orthographic and semantic priming effects in reading Chinese compounds. We conducted comparisons between native Chinese speakers and Chinese L2 learners, who vary in their quality of lexical representations. By manipulating the semantic transparency of prime-target pairs, we distinguished meaning from orthographic effects. The emergence of these effects was revealed by varying prime exposure durations. Orthographic effects emerged at shorter exposures for both L1 and L2 readers. However, meaning effects appeared at longer exposure durations only for L1 readers. These results confirm the generality of the orthography-first emergence of morphological effect in reading Chinese and suggest that readers' access to morphological meaning relations increases with experience.

Predicting Papiamento and Dutch reading comprehension development in a post-colonial context

Abstract The current research aims to predict L1 Papiamento and L2 Dutch reading comprehension development in 180 children in the upper primary grades (4–6) in a post-colonial Caribbean context from initial language of decoding instruction, cognitive and linguistic child characteristics, and linguistic transfer. Overall, children showed better reading comprehension proficiency in L1 as compared to L2 Dutch. Over the grades, strong autoregression effects in reading comprehension development in both languages were evidenced. Language of decoding instruction was found to predict L2 reading comprehension, but not L1 reading comprehension. The development of L2 reading comprehension showed better outcomes in the case of initial decoding instruction in L2. Word decoding, reading vocabulary, and grammar in respectively L1 and L2 were related to L1 and L2 reading comprehension in Grade 4, while L2 reading comprehension was additionally related to L2 basic oral vocabulary. Moreover, only reading vocabulary was related to L1 and L2 reading comprehension development across the grades. Finally, evidence of cross-linguistic interdependencies in the development of reading comprehension in L1 and L2 was found.