L2 Reading Proficiency Research Articles

Impact of Blended Extensive Reading Program on L2 Reading Proficiency and Fluency

Impact of Blended Extensive Reading Program on L2 Reading Proficiency and Fluency

An Analysis of Influencing Factors on Bilingual Reading of Second Language Learners

Proficiency in second-language (L2) reading is an important skill essential in an increasingly globalized world. Previous research has often addressed disparate elements influencing L2 reading proficiency without aggregating them into a comprehensive framework. This paper seeks to fill this gap by systematically collecting and examining the various factors that impact the ability to read in a second language. The primary objective of this research is to compile an exhaustive list of factors affecting L2 reading and to analyze their respective influences. By categorizing these factors into external and internal dimensions, this study aims to provide a holistic view of the ecosystem within which L2 reading comprehension develops and operates. Employing a qualitative literature review methodology, this research meticulously synthesizes existing studies and theoretical perspectives on L2 reading. The factors influencing L2 reading proficiency are divided into two broad categories: external and internal. External factors encompass educational contexts, socioeconomic influences, the role of technological tools and digital literacy, as well as cultural and contextual elements, and the characteristics of reading materials. Internal factors are identified as cognitive processes, the effects of language transfer and interference, and the roles of motivation and attitude in L2 reading. Each factor is analyzed for its unique contribution and interplay with other elements within the L2 reading process.

The Interplay between Metacognitive Knowledge, L2 Language Proficiency, and Question Formats in Predicting L2 Reading Test Scores

In the context of L2 academic reading, teachers tend to use a variety of question formats to assess students’ reading comprehension. Studies have revealed that not only question formats but also L2 language proficiency might affect how students use metacognitive strategies. Moreover, studies have determined that students’ L2 reading comprehension is positively influenced by their metacognitive knowledge, though whether this positive influence is reflected in students’ test scores is still under debate. This study therefore adopted path analyses to investigate the relationship between metacognitive knowledge, L2 reading proficiency, L2 reading test scores, and question formats. A total of 108 ESL students took English reading tests in multiple-choice and short-answer question formats and completed a reading strategy survey to measure their metacognitive knowledge of three types of strategies: global, problem-solving, and supporting. In both question formats, path analyses indicated that (1) metacognitive knowledge contributed to L2 reading test scores and (2) students’ L2 reading proficiency mediated the impact of metacognitive knowledge on their test performance. Moreover, path analyses revealed that question formats might play an important role in altering the impact of metacognitive knowledge on L2 reading test scores. Implications for instruction and L2 reading assessment are discussed.

The Role of Second Language Reading Proficiency in Moderating Second Language Word Recognition

Drawing upon the division of labor between orthographic and phonological information, this study investigated whether and how L2 reading proficiency moderates learners’ reliance on phonological and orthographic information in retrieving word meanings. A total of 136 Chinese collegiate students who learned English as a foreign language (EFL) completed English reading proficiency tests and were divided into higher and lower reading proficiency groups using an extreme-group approach. Behavioral tasks were used to measure the participants’ sensitivity to and processing skills of orthographic and phonological information. The analysis showed that the reliance on phonological and orthographic information differed significantly across L2 reading proficiency groups: The higher reading proficiency group was sensitive to both phonological and orthographic information within words, while the lower reading proficiency group was only sensitive to orthographic information; only orthographic processing skills significantly contributed to the word meaning retrieval of individuals in the higher reading proficiency group, while phonological processing skills were the only predictor for the lower reading proficiency group. These results suggest that the use of phonological and orthographic information vary as a function of L2 learners’ English reading proficiency. Implications regarding the changing patterns of L1 influences and the language-universal and language-specific aspects of word recognition were discussed.

Exploring Reading Attitudes, Reading Self-Efficacy, and Reading Proficiency in a Blended Learning Context Among EFL Learners

Background. Affective variables such as second language (L2) reading attitudes (RAs) and L2 reading self-efficacy (RSE) have been regarded as factors which influence academic results in regular face-to-face reading instruction. Research has reported that although positive RAs among adolescents may decline as they go through school, they still engage in diverse formal and informal reading environments involving printed and/or digital resources. These attitudes can be impacted by the sudden change in the way instruction is delivered in blended learning contexts which emerged due to the Covid-19 pandemic.
 Purpose. The present study applied a mixed methods approach to explore the relationship between the L2 RAs, L2 RSE, and L2 reading proficiency (RP) of Chilean high school students in a blended-learning context.
 Method. A sequential explanatory mixed-methods design was adopted to gather data from 124 Chilean high school students. The quantitative data collection was carried out by means of two adapted surveys assessing RAs and RSE, while the reading section of the Preliminary English Test (PET) was administered to determine the RP of participants. The qualitative aspect of the study involved semi structured interviews with ten participants.
 Results. Participants displayed moderately positive levels of RA and RSE. Furthermore, a strong correlation was found between RAs and RSE, and RSE was significantly correlated with RP. Qualitative data analysis revealed that the emergency remote teaching context during the pandemic affected student reading behaviour in relation to the attitudes towards recreational digital reading, and that teacher instruction can influence their RAs and RSE.
 Conclusion. It is essential for EFL teachers to nurture student L2 RSE by means of effective and consistent reading activities with increasing challenge that include synchronous and asynchronous learning. Since most participants preferred to complete reading tasks in a recreational digital setting rather than an academic digital one, teachers should incorporate academic reading activities which are more engaging and contextualised to student age and preferences to effectively use the synchronous and asynchronous time at their disposal in blended settings.

The Role of Task Types and Reading Proficiency on Young English as a Foreign Language Learners' Writing Performances

AbstractThis study examined the role of writing task types and L2 reading proficiency on young English as a foreign language (EFL) learners' writing performances. The participants were 185 students (Grades 7 and 8) from Denmark, Finland, and the Netherlands. The students responded to a descriptive and an email writing tasks that assessed their writing ability. The written responses were scored holistically and analyzed for aspects of lexical sophistication, syntactic complexity, writing fluency, and idea development. The students were grouped into strong or emergent readers based on their performances on an English reading comprehension test. Results showed that the students' writing performances differed across task types and were associated with their reading proficiency. The students produced more unique and concrete words and more complex syntactic structures and wrote longer essays in the descriptive writing task. Strong readers outperformed the emergent readers in both tasks and in writing fluency and idea development. Findings corroborate previous research on the connection between reading and writing skills and highlight the importance of strengthening young EFL learners' reading skills to support their writing development.

Reading Skills Transfer Best from Home Language to a Second Language: Policy Lessons from Two Field Experiments in South Africa

In many countries, children need to become proficient in both their home language (L1) and an international language, such as English (L2). Governments face tradeoffs in how to prioritize these two objectives. We provide empirical evidence on cross-linguistic transfer between L1 and L2, using the results of two randomized evaluations of Structured Pedagogy Programs implemented in South Africa. The programs had the same design, implementing organization, and duration. The key difference is that one program targeted the teaching of reading in L1, while the other targeted L2. We find that both interventions had positive effects on the languages they targeted. The L1 intervention also had a positive effect on L2 reading proficiency. In contrast, the L2 intervention had a negative effect on L1 outcomes, for the lower-performing students. These results are consistent with the Simple View of Reading and suggest that decoding skills are best learned in L1. It is thus cost-effective to prioritize learning to read in L1, as well as supporting teachers in this subject, even if becoming proficient in L2 is also regarded as an important policy objective.

Study on the Factors of Affecting L2 Reading Information Processing and their Regulatory Strategies

L2 reading information processing is influenced by various factors, and mastering the relevant influencing factors and their regulatory strategies is crucial for effectively improving L2 reading proficiency. This study explores the influencing factors and their regulatory strategies in L2 reading information processing through the scale survey. It is found in the study that linguistic factors, non-linguistic factors, and reading regulatory strategies all have significant impacts on the effectiveness of L2 reading information processing. Linguistic factors, such as vocabulary size and grammar knowledge, are considered as the most critical factors influencing L2 reading outcomes and are essential for comprehending and interpreting reading material information. Non-linguistic factors like attention and memory also play crucial roles in reading information processing, with focused attention and efficient memory utilization aiding in the extraction of reading information. Therefore, it is necessary to employ appropriate regulatory strategies during L2 reading process, such as cognitive regulation strategies and social interaction strategies, to effectively enhance reading efficiency. This research contributes to optimizing the teaching effectiveness of L2 reading and promoting the development of reading ability.

The relationship between L2 vocabulary knowledge and reading proficiency: The moderating effects of vocabulary fluency

In this study, we ascertain the links between the four dimensions of L2 vocabulary knowledge and L2 reading proficiency and the moderating effects of vocabulary fluency. For this purpose, 312 EFL Chinese university student volunteers were recruited from six majors at one tertiary university in Southeast China, and they took a series of vocabulary tests and the IELTS reading test. SEM and PING’S SINGLE INDICATOR INTERACTION methods were adopted to analyze the collected test data. The results indicated that (a) receptive lexical knowledge has a much closer link with reading proficiency than productive vocabulary knowledge; (b) among the four dimensions of L2 vocabulary knowledge, receptive vocabulary depth has a closer connection with reading proficiency than receptive vocabulary breadth; (c) vocabulary fluency has a substantial moderating effect on the connection between L2 vocabulary and reading proficiency; and (d) multiple regression analysis verifies that whole-word knowledge explains 49% of the variance in L2 reading testing grades. We discuss theoretical and instructional implications, focusing on the role of the four dimensions of L2 vocabulary knowledge in the vocabulary assessment criteria for developing L2 reading proficiency.

Individual differences in L1 attainment and language aptitude predict L2 achievement in instructed language learners

AbstractAlthough most children learn to communicate in their first language (L1), there is normal and expected variation in their rate of acquisition across all components of the language system. Until recently, most second language acquisition and second language (L2) researchers have assumed that individual differences (IDs) in L1 acquisition are small and irrelevant to IDs in L2 acquisition. However, growing evidence has found strong relationships between IDs in L1 attainment and ultimate L2 achievement. In this longitudinal study, US secondary students were administered measures of L1 written and oral achievement, L1 cognitive processing, and L2 aptitude, then followed over 3 years of Spanish instruction and administered standardized measures of L2 literacy and oral proficiency at the end of each year. Hierarchical regressions followed by regression commonality analysis showed that IDs in L1 achievement alone (reading, writing, vocabulary, and print exposure) accounted for substantial unique variance in L2 reading, writing, listening comprehension, and oral proficiency, while L2 aptitude accounted for additional unique variance at the end of each year. A new finding showed that variance accounted for by L1 skills increased from first to second to third year. Results lend additional support to the conclusion of strong L1–L2 relationships between IDs in L1 attainment and IDs in L2 achievement.

Establishing meaning recall and meaning recognition vocabulary knowledge as distinct psychometric constructs in relation to reading proficiency

The purpose of this paper is to (a) establish whether meaning recall and meaning recognition item formats test psychometrically distinct constructs of vocabulary knowledge which measure separate skills, and, if so, (b) determine whether each construct possesses unique properties predictive of L2 reading proficiency. Factor analyses and hierarchical regression were conducted on results derived from the two vocabulary item formats in order to test this hypothesis. The results indicated that although the two-factor model had better fit and meaning recall and meaning recognition can be considered distinct psychometrically, discriminant validity between the two factors is questionable. In hierarchical regression models, meaning recognition knowledge did not make a statistically significant contribution to explaining reading proficiency over meaning recall knowledge. However, when the roles were reversed, meaning recall did make a significant contribution to the model beyond the variance explained by meaning recognition alone. The results suggest that meaning recognition does not tap into unique aspects of vocabulary knowledge and provide empirical support for meaning recall as a superior predictor of reading proficiency for research purposes.

A Review of Factors Affecting the Acquisition of Second Language Reading Skills

Effective reading skills are essential prerequisites for L2 reading proficiency which demand different metacognitive and cognitive skills to deal with the problems before and during the reading. These reading strategies adopted by L2 proficient readers are effective methods to handle the primary factors that influence reading proficiency. Therefore, the current research provided a comprehensive review of factors affecting the acquisition of second-language reading skills. The review consisted of thirty-two research articles related to L2 reading acquisition. The results demonstrated primary factors which impacted the L2 reading skills and a wide range of reading techniques adopted by proficient English language learners to construct meanings from the written text. Finally, it is likely to expect that the review of factors affecting reading skills can provide English language teachers and English language learners with in-depth insights into social and cognitive factors affecting L2 reading literacy.

Bilingual effect: the influence of L2 reading proficiency on cognitive control differences among young adult Chinese-English bilinguals

ABSTRACT The study examines whether L2 reading proficiency exerts influence upon cognitive control among young-adult Chinese-English bilinguals. A low L2 reading proficiency group and a high L2 reading proficiency group were compared on two cognitive control tasks measuring inhibition, monitoring, and mental set shifting, i.e. Number Stroop task and Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST), with other confounding variables strictly matched. The results showed that the high L2 reading proficiency group had bilingual effects on conflict monitoring in the Stroop task and mental set shifting in the WCST. Further regression analyses results confirmed the significant role of L2 reading in cognitive control. The overall results suggest that L2 reading experience has a significant influence on cognitive control on the aspects of conflict monitoring and mental set shifting, but not on inhibition, revealing the specific relationship between particular linguistic context demand (L2 reading) and its potential impact on cognitive control.

The Effect of Automatic Text Simplification on L2 Readers’ Text Comprehension

Abstract Texts used in L2 classrooms have traditionally been simplified manually, but recent technological advances allow us to investigate whether automatic text simplification (ATS) software can help L2 learners comprehend texts in second and foreign languages. Participants were divided into low and high L2 reading proficiency groups and assigned to read either the authentic or automatically simplified version of a text and completed a free recall task and MC comprehension test. The results did not show any significant correlations among the variables of topic knowledge, topic interest, and MC comprehension, but there were correlations among L2 reading comprehension, MC comprehension, and free recall results. Results also showed that the automatically simplified text facilitated the comprehension of the more proficient readers but not the less proficient readers according to their performance on the free recall assessment. Implications are that L2 teachers cannot blindly use whatever text they want with ATS, and ATS software designers may need to reconsider the current conservative approach to simplification that many ATS tools use.

Motivation, Engagement, Strategy Use, and L2 Reading Proficiency in Iranian EFL Learners: An Investigation of Relations and Predictability

The present study aimed to explore the relationship between reading motivation, reading engagement, strategy use, and L2 reading proficiency and the predictability of the first three factors on L2 reading proficiency in a group of Iranian EFL learners. The participants were selected based on a nonrandom purposive sampling technique. They were asked to complete the MRQ, reading engagement questionnaire, the SILL, and an IELTS reading test. The data were analyzed using the SPSS software. The findings indicated that there existed a meaningful positive relationship between reading motivation and L2 reading proficiency as well as reading engagement and L2 reading proficiency. There did not exist a positive relationship between strategy use and L2 reading proficiency. The results also revealed that reading motivation and reading engagement predicted the L2 reading proficiency of the participants. Furthermore, a significant difference existed among the low, intermediate, and high-proficient L2 readers in terms of reading motivation and reading engagement. Implications of the study are presented in the article.

Text reading in English as a second language: Evidence from the Multilingual Eye-Movements Corpus

AbstractResearch into second language (L2) reading is an exponentially growing field. Yet, it still has a relatively short supply of comparable, ecologically valid data from readers representing a variety of first languages (L1). This article addresses this need by presenting a new data resource called MECO L2 (Multilingual Eye Movements Corpus), a rich behavioral eye-tracking record of text reading in English as an L2 among 543 university student speakers of 12 different L1s. MECO L2 includes a test battery of component skills of reading and allows for a comparison of the participants’ reading performance in their L1 and L2. This data resource enables innovative large-scale cross-sample analyses of predictors of L2 reading fluency and comprehension. We first introduce the design and structure of the MECO L2 resource, along with reliability estimates and basic descriptive analyses. Then, we illustrate the utility of MECO L2 by quantifying contributions of four sources to variability in L2 reading proficiency proposed in prior literature: reading fluency and comprehension in L1, proficiency in L2 component skills of reading, extralinguistic factors, and the L1 of the readers. Major findings included (a) a fundamental contrast between the determinants of L2 reading fluency versus comprehension accuracy, and (b) high within-participant consistency in the real-time strategy of reading in L1 and L2. We conclude by reviewing the implications of these findings to theories of L2 acquisition and outline further directions in which the new data resource may support L2 reading research.

Personality Types and L2 Reading: correlation between University Students MBTI Profiles and Reading Proficiency

Personality types have a considerable impact on our understanding of the outer world, perception and energy. Personality influence on language learning and proficiency, however, is controversial. This study demonstrates the relationship between the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) profiles and L2 reading proficiency of L1 Arab undergraduates. First, learners' reading proficiency levels were associated with their Introversion/Extraversion preferences. Then, function pairs of both introverts and extraverts that contributes to the highest score of L2 reading proficiency were determined. As most reading tests are based on choice, it is very logical to consider the MBTI function pairs as they represent the mental functions used for decision-making and information gathering. Fifty (50) Arab male students from the College of Business Administration (Saudi Arabia) were randomly selected. Two instruments were used to collect data; MBTI as a personality instrument, and TOEIC Bridge as a reading test. Findings showed a lack of statistically significant relationship between Introversion/Extraversion and L2 reading proficiency. Yet, Intuitive personalities (NT/NF) preferences achieved higher scores in the TOEIC Bridge compared to their counterparts of the Sensing personalities (ST/SF). Personality types have undoubted influence on our lifestyle and attitudes. Yet, considering personality as a weighty factor in language learning and proficiency is still debatable.

Establishing a computer-assisted interactive reading model

Drawing on the nonlinearity and dynamicity of second language (L2) motivation and individual differences, the present study introduced and examined the computer-assisted interactive reading model (CAIRM) incorporating computer-assisted language learning (CALL) tools and affordances to assist reading comprehension in blended and distance learning contexts. The CAIRM aims at incorporating CALL tools and affordances to move L2 readers from strategic (conscious, deliberate, intentional) to automatized (reading without employing conscious strategies) processing to develop L2 reading proficiency. The model arranges emerging digital reading features to facilitate restructuring and checking content comprehension as a way to alter between bottom-up and top-down processing. To investigate CAIRM effectiveness at three levels of implementation, a between-subject design was used in a sample of 278 Iranian learners. Results indicated significant improvement on the measure of reading performance, favoring all three experimental groups (d = 2.34, d = 2.49, and d = 3.82 for bottom-up, top-down, and both processing approaches conditions, respectively). The combination of bottom-up and top-down processing strategies emerged as the most effective level of CAIRM implementation. Results also documented positive perceptions of the proposed model efficacy among participants. This suggests that offering a variety of strategies under the CAIRM—or similar models—teachers can move away from static traditional approaches based on just one particular data processing mode towards more flexible uses of the CALL tools and strategies that fit their unique teaching and their students’ unique learning styles best while supporting positive attitudes towards learning among L2 students in blended and distance learning contexts.

Comparing incidental vocabulary learning from reading-only and reading-while-listening

This study compares incidental vocabulary learning in reading-while-listening and reading-only conditions. Using both offline and online outcome measures, I assessed explicit form and meaning knowledge and the lexicalization of new words. I also explored how L2 listening and reading proficiency moderated learning gains in the two treatment conditions. L2 learners first read or read-while-listened to four short stories in English for meaning, with embedded target vocabulary items. They then completed surprise vocabulary posttests in the order of a form priming lexical decision task, a form recognition test, a form-meaning connection test and a semantic priming lexical decision task. Results showed that while the reading-while-listening group outperformed the reading-only group in recognizing the form and meaning of the target vocabulary, neither group fully lexicalized the new words, which was crucial for fluent lexical retrieval. L2 listening and reading proficiency affected learning from reading-while-listening and reading-only differentially: the reading-while-listening group was negatively affected by L2 reading proficiency when controlling for listening proficiency while performance of the reading-only group was not predicted by L2 proficiency. Implications for the use of bimodal input in incidental vocabulary learning are discussed.

A metacognição em leitura e sua relação com proficiência leitora em L1 e L2

Uma das atividades cognitivas em que a metacognição se evidencia é na proficiência leitora, por meio do acesso à consciência metacognitiva de estratégias de leitura e do emprego de estratégias metacognitivas leitoras. O objetivo do estudo foi analisar: a) se existe uma relação entre a metacognição na leitura em L1 (português – P) e a proficiência em leitura em L1 (P) ou em L2 (inglês – I); e b) se há uso diverso de estratégias e maior consciência metacognitiva nos grupos com maior proficiência leitora em L1 e L2. Para tal, realizou-se um estudo empírico com 54 universitários, divididos em quatro grupos, de acordo com a proficiência leitora alta ou baixa, em inglês ou em português. Os participantes resolveram as seguintes tarefas: autorrelato de consciência metacognitiva de estratégias de leitura, adaptado de Mokhtari e Reichard (2002), Metacognitive Awareness of Reading Strategies Inventory (MARSI), e instrumento de avaliação da compreensão leitora e do uso de estratégias com método de protocolo retrospectivo escrito. Observou-se correlação entre MARSI e categorias de estratégias com proficiência leitora em L1 e L2. A pesquisa pretende destacar a importância do papel da consciência metacognitiva nos processos leitores e, especialmente, do desenvolvimento da proficiência leitora em língua materna.