L2 Learning Process Research Articles

English learners’ beliefs about L2 speaking fluency: Insights from elicited metaphor analysis

AbstractSecond language (L2) learners hold different learning beliefs that influence their interpretation of classroom experiences and their L2 learning process. Developing a thorough understanding of such beliefs is therefore imperative. This article reports the representations of Iranian English‐as‐a‐foreign‐language (EFL) learners’ beliefs about L2 speaking fluency as revealed by elicited metaphors and follow‐up interviews. A group of 24 Iranian EFL learners majoring in teaching English as a foreign language were asked to conceptualize L2 speaking fluency through metaphor. Learners’ metaphorical representations were examined using metaphor analysis and organized into eight metaphor themes through thematic analysis. The findings suggest that metaphor is a suitable tool for gaining insight into learners’ beliefs about L2 speaking fluency and capturing its complex, multifaceted nature. Various aspects were conceptualized, which revealed that learners had a deep understanding of L2 speaking fluency and could represent its multifaceted nature in the learning process. Additionally, this research sheds light on contextual factors that might contribute to learners’ beliefs. The findings fill a gap in research concerning EFL learners’ beliefs about L2 speaking fluency and have useful implications for L2 teachers, learners, and researchers.

Written corrective feedback and the language curriculum: Theory, research, curricular issues, and the researcher-teacher interface

Feedback plays an important role in the L2 learning process, as evidenced by several meta-analyses on both oral (e.g., Li, 2010) and written (e.g., Kang & Han, 2015) corrective feedback. In the written corrective feedback (WCF) strand, when viewed from a writing-to-learn perspective (Manchón, 2011), there has been a recent two-pronged critique that addresses 1) the general product-oriented approach and 2) the failure to situate research designs within the authentic instructed SLA or ISLA setting (Leow, 2020) that, in turn, is situated within a language curriculum (e.g., Leow, 2019a). The call for a theoretically-driven ISLA and curricular approach to the WCF strand of research is quite logical given that WCF not only takes place in the instructed setting but is crucially aligned with the writing component of the curriculum. This curricular approach also holds the potential for research in WCF to address the researcher-teacher interface that continues to reveal a gap between ISLA researchers and classroom teachers. To this end, this article probes deeper into the curricular approach to WCF research by 1) first reporting on the two theoretical underpinnings that directly address the WCF process, 2) addressing the potential conflation of the two types of writing curricula in language departments, 3) discussing considerations required of a curricular approach to WCF research, 4) providing an example of a process-oriented ISLA applied study that falls within a curricular approach to WCF research, and 5) addressing the gap of the researcher-teacher interface including collaborative steps taken to involve teachers in WCF studies.

Motivational Factors in Learning an L2: A Study on Intrinsic/Extrinsic Motivation, Classroom Materials and Teachers’ Behaviors

The aim of this study was to explore intrinsic and extrinsic motivations toward learning Spanish, French, and Mandarin as foreign languages. Also, this study investigates which are the main factors that influence the learners’ motivation of the L2, focusing on two specific aspects within the classroom: the materials used in this learning process and the teacher’s behaviors. A sample of 173 high school L2 students (9-12) was selected. The results showed that among the top 10 reasons that justified their L2 learning process, 6 were based on intrinsic factors and 4 on extrinsic ones. Also, these results showed that the most preferred materials by the students to learn are those related to audio-visual resources. Lastly, regarding the teachers’ motivational practices, the results showed that learners value as the most important motivational factors some teacher’s personality traits.

Exploring the Efficacy of Video Project Assignments in English Language Learning through the Lens of Tertiary-Level EFL Students

Convenient methods for the instruction of foreign languages are constantly in quest as a consequence of incessant technological breakthroughs at a rapid speed. Video-making project has turned out to be a prominent technique that allows learners to be actively involved in the target language and utilize L2 in real-world situations with “intake” they obtained from in-class setting. English language students’ perceptions concerning the effectiveness of these multimodal resources in their learning experience as non-examination assessment tools have not, however, been the objective of many studies within online EFL contexts. Hence, this study was directed at seeking the relationship between EFL learners’ perceptions of the efficacy of group project assignments on their L2 competence, language learning process, and implementations in online classes. To that end, 75 sophomore Turkish students in tertiary-level education enrolled in a compulsory online module of English partook in the research by filling out a 17-item questionnaire. The results portray the positive relations between their perceptions towards the influences of those projects on language proficiency and target language learning phases, whereas a significant relationship was not detected between their implementations in online settings and contributions to the L2 learning process. Nevertheless, the optimistic approach of EFL students to exploit these projects as effective tools for English proficiency mediated the link between these two foregoing sub-dimensions. Accordingly, some suggestions were provided for future research directions.

Individual differences in computer-assisted language learning research

In the era of rapid technological expansion, the integration of various technologies into the process of second and foreign language (L2) learning and teaching has become pervasive, making computer-assisted language learning (CALL) a well-established field (Golonka et al., 2014). There is now a consensus that individual differences (IDs) significantly influence the process and product of L2 learning (Pawlak, 2020). With a plethora of technology-based options and functionalities, CALL provides learners with a high degree of autonomy (Pawlak et al., 2016), making it an environment that is ripe for capitalizing on learners’ individuality (p. 17). However, despite their critical role, IDs have not garnered the attention they genuinely merit in this context (Pawlak, 2022). To address this issue, Mirosław Pawlak and Mariusz Kruk put together the volume Individual Differences in Computer-Assisted Language Learning Research, providing timely and insightful guidelines for the exploration of IDs in CALL and the broader realm of second language acquisition (SLA) research.

Chatbot Gamified and Automated Management of L2 Learning Process Using Smart Sender Platform

<p style="text-align:justify">The purpose of this study was to examine the potential impact of integrating the Smart Sender platform to gamify and automate L2 e-classes on students’ motivation, English language proficiency in reading and language use, engagement, and attitudes towards the platform. This experimental research employed a quasi-experimental design, specifically a non-equivalent control group design of a pre-test-post-test type. The study found that the use of chatbot-driven e-classes on the Smart Sender platform increased student motivation, improved their English language proficiency in reading and language usage, and enhanced their engagement within L2 e-classes. Students expressed their appreciation for the ease of use and usefulness of this chatbot-based tool for improving their English language skills. The findings showed that the scores for motivation, engagement, and English language proficiency increased for both the experimental and control groups from pre-test to post-test, with a large effect size observed for the experimental group and a medium effect size observed for the control group. The statistically significant difference in the mean scores between the experimental and control groups indicates the positive impact of incorporating gamified chatbot-driven sessions within L2 e-classes on the Smart Sender platform.</p>

Using Eye-Tracking in L2 English Teaching and Learning Research: A Review for its Implementation in Costa Rica

Research using eye-tracking technology has wildly increased in the last decade (Keating, 2013). Hence, studies on L2 teaching and learning have started to use that technology to improve research in that area. However, L2 eye-tracking research has not been explored in the Costa Rican context. This article aims to describe what eye-tracking is, what eye-tracking paradigms are, studies using eye-tracking in L2 teaching and learning, and research ideas for its implementation in Costa Rica. The methodology employed was an integrative review approach (Cooper, 1988) to review eye-tracking research and to discuss its application in Costa Rica. It was found that there are no studies regarding L2 teaching and learning in Costa Rica with the use of eye-tracking. Thus, research ideas to conduct eye-tracking research in L2 teaching and learning are discussed. It is concluded that the use of eye-tracking brings an opportunity to conduct multidisciplinary research to further advance the knowledge of L2 teaching and learning processes in Costa Rica.

Second language learning role-play: effects of patient and doctor roles on motivation and competence.

Role-playing has motivated foreign language learners for decades. In doctor-patient medical consultation role-plays, the doctor role has always been considered an important learning opportunity, whilst the patient role remained obscured. Our study, therefore, had a dual focus. We first explored how intrinsic motivation changes medical second-language (L2) learning through the lens of self-determination theory. We subsequently examined if playing the role of the patient provides additional value to medical L2 learning. We performed a mixed-methods study using a one-group pretest-posttest design. Participants were 15 student volunteers learning medical Dutch through peer role-play in medical consultations. Students completed a questionnaire before and after the course that measured changes in their intrinsic motivation to experience stimulation (IMES), feeling of relatedness, and feeling of competence. We also measured students' competence through a peer-rated checklist and the final course grades. At the end of the course, the students participated in semi-structured interviews to discuss their experience acting as patients. The data were subjected to the Wilcoxon signed-rank test and a thematic analysis. The pre- and post-questionnaires revealed that students' IMES as well as their feeling of relatedness increased. Their self-perceptions, feeling of competence, peer assessments, and final course grades demonstrated that students were competent in medical L2. Our thematic analysis led to the identification of five themes of the role-play exercise for medical L2 learning: (1) motivational experience, (2) supportive peer interaction, (3) setting up a role-play environment for medical L2 learning, (4) utilizing the patient role to benefit medical L2 learning, and (5) a novel patient perspective on the doctor's role. Our study found that role-play, by enhancing students' intrinsic motivation, feeling of relatedness, and competence development, aids the medical L2 learning process. Interestingly, playing a patient role in medical consultation was also found to support this process. We welcome future controlled experiments to confirm the positive impact of playing the role of the patient in medical consultation.

Cross-Linguistic Comparison of the Pitch and Temporal Profiles between L1 and Chinese L2 Speakers of Spanish

Cross-linguistic studies between intonational languages suggest that there is a universal trend during the L2 learning process regarding pitch and temporal characteristics. We extend these hypotheses to Chinese learners of Peninsular Spanish-a new pairing of tone and non-tone languages. Using six pitch and temporal metrics, we examine how Chinese learners’ pitch and temporal profiles deviated from those of L1 native speakers and explore the factors that may contribute to L2 speech deviations. The Discourse Completion Task was conducted to elicit five question types produced by 37 participants, who were divided into three language groups. Consistent with previous literature, our study shows that Chinese L2 learners had a compression of pitch span (at both the utterance and syllable levels) and pitch variability, as well as a strong reduction of pitch change rate, speech rate, and articulation rate compared to L1 Spanish speakers. Most pitch and temporal deviations in L2 Spanish intonation are closely linked to psychological and cognitive attributes rather than being determined by physiological factors or L1 tonal transfer. Moreover, the lack of prosodic knowledge of the target intonation patterns concerning the different question types may also hinder L2 learners from approaching a native-like pitch and temporal profile.

Ronald P. Leow's essential bookshelf: The L2 learning process in instructed second language acquisition (ISLA)

Ronald P. Leow is Professor (Applied Linguistics) in the Department of Spanish and Portuguese and Language Program Director of Spanish Language Instruction at Georgetown University. He has initiated and published (over 100 articles and chapters) in several strands of research that include language curriculum development, research methodology, cognitive processes and depth of processing in language learning, (written and computerized) corrective feedback, textual enhancement, reactivity, and CALL. He has contributed to the field his 2015 Model of the L2 Learning Process in ISLA (in Explicit learning in the L2 classroom: A student-centered approach, Routledge) and his 2020 Feedback Processing Framework (in R. M. Manchón (Ed.), Writing and language learning. Advancing research agendas, John Benjamins) to provide a cognitive account for how L2 data and feedback are processed by L2 learners. His i10-index is 58 with over 6,500 citations.

Investigating Language Ego as an Affective Factor Influencing Second Language Acquisition in the Learning Process

ABSTRACT: Real-life observation has shown that second language (L2) learners differ in their L2 learning process in which this individual difference is virtually related to the factors influencing second language acquisition. Many researchers have been interested in finding those factors, yet there is still a little study examining the impact of language ego as the affective factor. Thus, this paper aims to elaborate on how the language ego influences second language acquisition. By having a thorough understanding of language ego in L2 learning, it is expected that it can give some enlightenment to a better learning process for L2 learners.To provide an adequate explanation of language ego, this paper uses a literature review. This method is used to aggregate empirical findings related to a narrow research question which is the language ego as one of the affective factors influencing second language acquisition. Some previous studies that discuss a similar topic are collected, and the data is analyzed in accordance with the objective of this paper.As one of the affective factors, language ego is a psychological state of a learner in which it refers to the identity that a person develops in reference to the language. In this paper, it is hypothesized that the language ego influences second language acquisition in positive correlation when the focus is the permeability of the language ego. The permeability shows how the ego can be flexible and adaptable to the second language. The higher the learner’s language ego permeability is, the higher the learner’s chance of successful second language acquisition is.

Individual Differences in Second Language Learning: A Book Review of Kristin Kersten and Adam Winsler (2023) And Shaofeng Li, Phil Hiver, and Mostafa Papi (2022)

In second language acquisition (SLA), an understanding of individual differences (IDs) is the key to grasping both the variant and invariant aspects of it (Li et al. 2022: xxiv). Given the complex and dynamic role of IDs plays in the L2 learning process, researchers have made efforts to reach a clear, accurate, and comprehensive picture of how IDs work. However, current studies on IDs generally adopt a monolithic view lacking systematic integration, which fails to provide a meta-theory of IDs (Dörnyei 2009). The two books under review present relatively comprehensive, thorough, and updated accounts of ID research in SLA. Understanding Variability in Second Language Acquisition, Bilingualism, and Cognition, situated from a multidisciplinary perspective of theory and method like psychology, sociology, and math, sets an example of innovative explorations of IDs in SLA and proposes a nested structure of multiple contextual levels to probe IDs. In contrast, The Routledge Handbook of Second Language Acquisition and Individual Differences is an excellent encyclopaedia of ID research for its extensive breadth and depth. This book provides an overview of ID-related theories, research, pedagogy-oriented applications, and research methods. In short, these two contributions on IDs, are welcome additions to the traditional universalist perspective in SLA with significant implications for advancing both the theory and practice of IDs and SLA.

The predictors of L2 grit and their complex interactions in online foreign language learning: motivation, self-directed learning, autonomy, curiosity, and language mindsets

Learning a foreign language is a long-term process requiring persistence and a willingness to engage in activities that will help develop communicative competence. An important role on the way to achieving linguistic proficiency is played by L2 grit. However, foreign language learners differ in the intensity of this trait. We identify the most important predictors of L2 grit in the online language learning context. Basing on a literature review, we first identify possible predictors in the generic process of L2 learning, including language mindsets as well as two general psychological dispositions: a sense of autonomy and curiosity, and subsequently one predictor specifically related to the virtual learning context, i.e., readiness for online learning. A multiple linear regression model built using questionnaire data collected from 615 learners from 69 countries enrolled in language courses taught in a remote or hybrid mode reveals that L2 grit is most determined by two dimensions of readiness for online learning, and to a lesser extent by learners’ autonomy and curiosity, and significantly and positively correlates with these factors. The regression model explains 48% of variance in the dependent variable. A subsequent psychological network analysis, one of the first applications of this method in the field of SLA, permitted estimating the relative importance of these factors in the complex network of associations, indicating equally strong direct connections between L2 grit and both dimensions of readiness for online learning, and a much weaker edge linking L2 grit with autonomy. The findings have practical implications for language teachers in remote and hybrid settings.

A sociocultural perspective understanding the role of L1 in the learning of L2 through TBLT and CLIL pedagogical approaches

Over the past few decades, there have been an increasing number of empirical studies exploring the use of the first language (L1) in pedagogical approaches (e.g., Lee, 2018; Lo, 2015; Turnbull, 2001). However, to date relatively less research has undressed the role of the L1 from a sociocultural perspective to inform educational practitioners of theory-supported teaching practices. With a focus on two specific pedagogical approaches, namely, task-based language teaching (TBLT) and content and language integrated learning (CLIL), this paper reviews two recent studies whose findings pertaining to the role of L1 in second language (L2) learning and teaching are discussed and re-interpreted through the lens of Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory of mind (1978, 1986). The discussion uncovers the multifaceted role of L1 as a cognitive, affective, and interactional mediator, which I argue could optimise the L2 learning process within both the TBLT and CLIL classroom discourse. Such a reconceptualisation of the mediating role of the L1 may shed light on the benefits of using L1 in TBLT and CLIL pedagogies and help language educators make research-informed decisions about their language use choices in the L2 classroom.

Mandarin Pronunciation Learning Strategies of MFL Learners in Malaysia

Pronunciation is the fundamental step in learning a second language (L2) or a foreign language (FL). This is a crucial step that cannot be excluded from the process of L2 or FL teaching and learning. Apart from that, pronunciation is not only an indicator to measure learners’ acquisition of a second language, but also a tool to ensure the effectiveness of communication between the speaker and listener. However, pronunciation instruction has been absent from second language classrooms for a long period, because it has long been believed that pronunciation is not crucial and can be learned by students. Consequently, learners have to pick up pronunciation learning on their own in order to achieve the learning goal. The literature review showed that a large number of existing studies revealed that MFL learners utilized MPLS, however, MPLS utilized by non-native learners of Mandarin in Malaysia are previously unstudied. Thus, this quantitative study seeks to explore the Mandarin language learning strategies (MPLS) employed by Mandarin as a foreign language (MFL) learner in Malaysia. A questionnaire namely “Strategy Inventory for Mandarin Pronunciation Learning” that was designed based on taxonomies presented by Oxford (1990); Peterson (2000) was used as the main instrument in this study. 151 students from Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), Rembau campus who enrolled in a Mandarin language course were invited to participate in this study. The findings revealed that the level of the use of MPLS among MFL learners is at moderate level which indicated that MFL learners in Malaysia were opportunely aware of the use of pronunciation learning strategies while learning Mandarin pronunciation. Social strategies were the most frequently used strategies as compared to other MPLS. It was followed by cognitive strategies, affective strategies, memory strategies, metacognitive strategies, and compensation strategies. Findings from this study can help MFL instructors better understand the need to close the gap between their students’ selection of teaching approaches and language learning strategies. However, there were several limitations need a greater exploration in future research, such as factors affecting the selection of MPLS, individual differences and so on.

Attitude-Motivation of Learning English as L2 - Study Case of Airlangga Linguistics Students Full Manuscript

This study aspires to scrutinise the attitude and motivation of Airlangga University linguistics students in learning and mastering English as their L2. Sufficient proficiency and command in English are needed to support the academic success in teaching-learning process, particularly in a university. Through a total of 20 active linguistics students in Airlangga University that had been surveyed, it is found that a plenty of them still do not meet the minimum proficiency that the university has set. There are several factors that affect students’ proficiency in English of the linguistics students in Airlangga University. Through the finding of this research, it is found out that these factors derived from internal motivation of the students and also external factors that keep motivating the students to have adequate proficiency and command in English. To help the linguistics students in bridging their understanding for the teaching-learning materials which are predominantly delivered in English is the main drive of the linguistics students’ motivation to master English as their L2. This research provides students, academics, scholars, and institutions several suggestions and solutions that can be done to overcome obstacles or problems that the learners must face in order to obtain L2 learning achievements. Several things are also suggested in this research regarding what can be done in order to maximise L2 learning process.

Ensino-aprendizagem de uma L2: uma perspetiva processual

This text presents fundamental concepts within the framework of teaching and learning Portuguese as a second language (L2) or another L2. Throughout the text, basic concepts such as acquisition and learning, procedural or declarative processing, working memory or long-term memory are discussed. The purpose of bringing to light a set of foundations that support a psycholinguistic approach to language teaching is to contribute to the initial or ongoing training of practicing or aspiring teaches who are interested in the processes that help explain difficulties and breakthroughs in the L2 learning process. It calls for an exploratory and inquisitive attitude on the part of these teachers.

Τhe Turkish Nominal Syntagmatic Sets 'Ad tamlaması': A Linguistic Approach in Turkish Second Language Acquisition and Teaching

This paper investigates the second language (L2) acquisition of the Turkish category Ad tamlaması (AT). AT consists an umbrella term which is encountered in Turkish grammars and L2-Turkish coursebooks to refer to three forms of Nominal Syntagmatic Sets (NSS), namely a) N-(n)In N-(s)I(n), b) N N-(s)I(n) and c) N N-(y) . This paper is trying to examine whether the apparently formal similarity of these 3 Nominal Syntagmatic Sets Ad Tamlaması (NSS-AT) in Turkish can be correlated with a respective degree of ease in L2 acquisition and simultaneity in L2 teaching or not. The main aim of this paper is to delineate the differences of these three NSS forms by testing them upon 12 morpho-syntactic criteria. The test results will show how much syntactically analytic and semantically transparent each of these sets is. We will conclude that the formal differentiation of the 3 NSS types does not always correspond with functional- semantic differentiation, which has implications on the difficulties these forms create in L2-learners. We will show that in the L2 learning process of the 3 NSS-AT forms, we expect a learning step ahead in the analytic N-(n)In N-(s)I(n) form compared to non-analytic compounds such as the N N-(s)I(n) form and more blurred cases such as the N N-(y) form, which shares properties of both Noun Phrases (NPs) and compounds. From a didactic scope, we come to assume that the traditional interconnection of the three NSS-Ad Tamlaması forms in Turkish L2-teaching and L2-learning methods should be put aside and rather give its place in alternative more anti-holistic approaches which would uncover the hidden syntactic properties of the 3 forms rather than stress the similarities between them.

When teaching works and time helps: Noun modification in L2 English school children

AbstractThe study focuses on the interaction between length of exposure and instruction in the L2 English acquisition process of L1 Spanish school children. Two target structures involving noun premodification are targeted: noun–noun (NN) compounds and adjective–noun (AN) strings. Four groups of participants have been studied for 3 years: a group that has been exposed to a specifically designed teaching program targeting NN compounds and a group that has received the regular English instruction program which does not address this structure as part of the curriculum. Two age subgroups appear in each case. The longitudinal judgment data elicited show that performance improves in the cooperation between length of exposure and the exposure to the NN instruction program. Furthermore, it is this last issue that actually takes the lead in that the NN instruction program directly impacts on not only NN compounds but also AN strings. This points to instruction being determinant in the L2 learning process; that is, a consciously and carefully directed instruction is proven to be more effective than length of exposure itself. This study on longitudinal experimental data contributes to shed light on the factors involved in instructed L2 acquisition.

Book review: The Routledge Handbook of Second Language Acquisition and Writing

The Routledge Handbook of Second Language Acquisition and Writing is a collection of research papers edited by Rosa M. Manchón and Charlene Polio. They aim to create a compendium that serves to contextualize and synthesize the development and research practices of the connection between second language (L2) writing and second language acquisition (SLA). The chapters of the collection feature theoretical perspectives and current empirical development on how and why L2 writing can be a meaningful site for language learning. Three reasons are formulated to articulate the significance of the volume concerning SLA-informed L2 writing studies: (1) research outcomes in this research domain are theoretically and empirically fruitful; (2) the theoretical contributions to the SLA knowledge are newly achieved; (3) L2 writing plays an indispensable role in instructed second language acquisition (ISLA) settings. By taking into account the socially situated nature of L2 writing teaching and learning, Manchón and Cerezo (2018) highlighted the substantial value of integrating L2 writing with SLA theories and research for both boosting the L2 learning process and advancing present and prospective SLA research agendas. Such an academic viewpoint appears to be predominant and invaluable in this collection with its theoretical advancements and practical insights contributed by authors from diverse educational settings.