This study investigated the relationships of language aptitude (LA) with working memory (WM) and their predictive roles in explaining third language (L3) comprehension. A sample of L1 Turkish-speaking English language teaching majors (N = 109) completed the LLAMA version 3 (Meara & Rogers, 2019), forward digit span, rotation, symmetry, and operation span tasks (Foster et al., 2015). L3 listening and reading comprehension measures were also administered to a subgroup of participants with L3 learning experience (N = 33). A factor analysis indicated verbal/phonological memory (digit span, operation span, and partially LLAMA D), visuospatial WM (symmetry and rotation span), and LLAMA (LLAMA B, E, F, partially D) factors. The L3 experience was not significantly correlated with any of the cognitive factors. The cognitive factors did not significantly contribute beyond L3 experience in explaining variance in L3 reading and listening comprehension. Findings were discussed regarding the verbal abilities shared by LA and WM and the potential sources of variation within L3 experience in young adult populations.

Unveiling the mediating role of the L2 motivational self system in the nexus between enjoyment and engagement in blended learning context.

The present study is a narrative inquiry of emotional experiences and emotional trajectories in 12 adult second language (L2) learners' L2 learning trajectories. The study employed semi-structured interviews and written narratives to identify four emotional phases: initial enthusiasm, plateau frustration, breakthrough confidence, and sustained engagement. The transformative experiences were triggered by five types of critical incidents: communication success, relationships and mentorship, public performance, cultural immersion, and identity recognition. Four identity transformation patterns were identified: Determined Achiever, Reluctant Converter, Heritage Seeker, and Social Connector. The results show that emotions are not only not peripheral to the process of language learning but also that they are central organizing principles that influence persistence, resilience and reconstruction of identity. The narrative inquiry method was found to be methodologically beneficial in accessing emotional and identity aspects not measurable by quantitative methods. Results validate humanistic, affective learning approaches to language learning, which view students as whole persons who are experiencing existential change in the process of learning the language.

Timing is a key feedback-design feature that may shape how second language (L2 learners notice, interpret, and apply written corrective feedback (WCF). With collaborative digital tools such as Google Docs, teachers can provide synchronous, anchored metalinguistic comments while learners compose, making “immediacy” a practical classroom option. Yet most timing research has been conducted in laboratory contexts, typically focusing on a single ­structure in one-to-one interaction, limiting generalizability to teacher-to-many classroom ecologies. This classroom quasi-experiment compared immediate versus delayed metalinguistic WCF in three intact L2-French classes (N = 75; CEFR B1). Learners wrote in self-selected dyads in shared Google Docs. The immediate group (n = 26) received metalinguistic comments during drafting; the delayed group (n = 24) received comparable comments on the same drafts one week later and revised in a brief, dedicated revision episode; a comparison group (n = 25) completed the same tasks without WCF during the study. Feedback targeted multiple curricular features within the same instructional cycle: noun-phrase agreement, verb-phrase agreement, and the passé composé–imparfait contrast. Development was assessed using individual writing tests administered at pretest, immediate posttest, and delayed posttest, with accuracy indexed as errors per 100 words per target category. Overall, delayed feedback showed the most consistent short-term advantage across targets at the immediate posttest, whereas longer-term effects were smaller and target dependent. Results suggest that timing effects in technology-mediated collaborative writing are shaped by classroom workflow constraints and by the processing demands of specific linguistic targets rather than reflecting a uniform “immediate is better” principle.

Semantic radicals provide information on semantic categories and play a crucial role in the decoding and reading of Chinese characters for both native and non-native speakers. However, existing research has not sufficiently examined the representation of abstract semantic radical identity and has overlooked the degree of deformation as a factor. This study uses a masked-priming semantic judgement task (Experiment 1) and a same-different judgement task (Experiment 2) to investigate how the deformation degree of semantic radicals affects the Chinese learners' abstract representations of these radicals. Results from Experiment 1 indicate that for native speakers, the reaction time under identity prime is faster than that under control prime regardless of the degree of deformation. In contrast, second language learners only exhibit this advantage when the deformation degree is low, with no significant difference when the deformation degree is high, suggesting that deformation degree affects abstract semantic radical identity representations of L2 learners. Experiment 2 found inhibition effects under identity conditions for both native speakers and L2 learners, showing that both groups have mastered semantic radicals with a high deformation degree. These results indicate that the experimental task influences the results and that L2 learners are more affected by the task. Understanding the impact of semantic radical deformation on learners' abstract representational abilities helps teachers to adjust their pedagogical strategies in order to provide more precise guidance and recommendations for Chinese character instruction.

ABSTRACT This study critically examines the Sri Lankan law undergraduates’ reluctance to speak in English and its implications towards Sri Lankan Englishes (SLEs) through cultural and affective lenses. It introduces ‘encultured axiom of linguistic shame-fear’ as a new conceptualisation derived from the Sri Lankan culture to explore this premise. Using Narrative Inquiry (NI) as the qualitative methodology, this study situates the pluralist experiences of two Sri Lankan law undergraduates within their cultural upbringing and critically examines how they regulate their linguistic ideologies in relation to speaking. These L2 learners represent diverse experiences related to accent hierarchies and the notion of nativeness. Moreover, they share pluralist ideologies related to the dynamics of being ‘posh vs. godey’, which refers to their beliefs related to ‘standard’ and ‘substandard’ usage of English. Pedagogical implications of these contentions are also highlighted, where it becomes possible to navigate between their colonially encultured experiences and decolonial discourses.

Learning vocabulary is central to learning a second or foreign language (henceforth L2). L2 vocabulary research shows how individual differences (IDs), such as metacognitive elements, motivational factors, and strategy use, contribute to vocabulary learning and acquisition. L2 vocabulary learning that incorporates IDs is often discussed in relation to the internalized vocabulary learning process, including how L2 learners acquire vocabulary by sustaining motivation, using vocabulary learning strategies, and regulating learning processes. The associations between the IDs and vocabulary learning have often been examined within the framework of self-regulated learning (SRL). However, discussions on how SRL processes are reinforced through co-regulated or socially shared learning with others and within social contexts remain scarce. In this article, we introduce a sociocultural perspective on strategic vocabulary learning. Specifically, we discuss how the internalized processes of self-regulated vocabulary learning can be socially constructed through co-regulation and socially shared regulation. The proposed framework has the potential to provide future research agendas and instructional practices in L2 vocabulary learning and teaching. We conclude by proposing directions for future research on the socially constructed nature of strategic vocabulary learning.

The interplay between attentional control and language task schemas: Progressive adaptation of attentional control in interpreting.

Non-English major students in Chinese higher education frequently exhibit insufficient motivation and declining academic engagement in compulsory English courses. Although growth mindset theory and the L2 Motivational Self System (L2MSS) have each been associated with language learning outcomes, intervention research integrating these traditions remains scarce, and the psychological pathways linking implicit ability beliefs to engagement behaviors are not well understood. Drawing on possible selves theory and self-discrepancy theory as a unifying framework, this study examined the longitudinal effects of a growth mindset intervention on non-English major students' L2MSS and academic engagement, and tested whether the L2MSS mediates the intervention-engagement relationship. A quasi-experimental design with cluster randomization at the class level assigned 120 first-year undergraduates to an experimental group (n = 60) and a control group (n = 60). The experimental group received a 12-week growth mindset intervention integrated into regular English instruction, comprising four modules: cognitive restructuring, attribution training, growth-oriented feedback, and metacognitive strategy instruction. Data were collected at three time points across one semester (T1 baseline, T2 mid-intervention, T3 post-intervention), measuring growth mindset, L2MSS components (ideal L2 self, ought-to L2 self, and L2 learning experience), and academic engagement dimensions (behavioral, emotional, and cognitive). Repeated measures ANOVA examined intervention effects, and bias-corrected bootstrap mediation analyses with a temporally ordered model (T1 → T2 → T3) tested mediating pathways. Repeated measures ANOVA revealed significant Group × Time interactions for all three L2MSS components and all three engagement dimensions, indicating that the intervention was associated with gains in motivational selves and engagement. The largest effects were observed for ideal L2 self and L2 learning experience. Bootstrap mediation analyses suggested that the L2MSS, particularly the ideal L2 self, may have functioned as a mediating mechanism, accounting for approximately 78.5% of the total intervention effect on engagement (total indirect effect β = 0.665, 95% CI [0.521, 0.821]), with the ideal L2 self alone contributing about 51%. Findings indicate that a classroom-integrated growth mindset intervention can meaningfully reshape non-English major students' L2 motivational selves and academic engagement, with effects transmitted primarily through enhanced ideal L2 self construction. These results extend theoretical understanding of how implicit beliefs, domain-specific motivational constructs, and learning behaviors connect, and they offer practical guidance for educators seeking to address motivation and engagement challenges in foreign language classrooms. Causal inferences should be tempered by the quasi-experimental design and absence of delayed follow-up assessment.

Research on data-driven learning (DDL) has long emphasized the value of engaging learners with authentic language data through corpora. However, little is known about how learners engage with and regulate their learning in DDL environments supported by generative artificial intelligence (GenAI), particularly in academic writing revision. To address this gap, this mixed-methods study examined how seven Chinese EFL learners engaged cognitively, behaviorally, and affectively with a Corpus-GenAI DDL mode, and how their self-regulatory capacity shaped these processes. Data were collected from students’ drafts, GenAI interaction logs, corpus query logs, stimulated recall interviews, reflective journals, and classroom observations. Results showed that skilled self-regulators engaged in deeper processing by evaluating GenAI suggestions, consulting corpora to verify linguistic choices, and using evidence to refine revisions. By contrast, less-skilled self-regulators relied more heavily on surface-level GenAI input, with less verification and weaker strategic planning. Despite these differences, learners generally reported positive affective responses, including curiosity, excitement, and growing confidence in the combined use of corpora and GenAI tools. This study contributes to the literature on DDL and feedback engagement by showing how GenAI-mediated scaffolding may support learners’ engagement with corpus consultation during writing revision. It further offers insight into how learners coordinate corpora and GenAI during revision, highlighting the role of self-regulation in shaping learner engagement, evidence-based decision-making, and linguistic awareness. Pedagogically, the findings underscore the value of feedback-rich writing environments that integrate corpora and GenAI to foster learner self-regulation and sustained engagement.

Previous research on imitation in L1 has shown that explicit instructions generally generate more robust convergence with the model talker than implicit instructions. However, this regularity has not gained sufficient empirical attention in L2 speech imitation. To address this gap, we examined English vowel duration variability as a cue to following voiced versus voiceless consonants (vowel clipping) in 28 Czech and 28 Polish L2 learners of English. Neither Czech nor Polish uses vowel clipping as a voicing cue in the L1. Participants completed three tasks: (1) baseline, (2) imitation, and (3) post-test. Our results confirmed convergence towards the model stimuli during imitation, but this effect diminished in the post-test. The critical manipulation involved the imitation task: half of the participants were explicitly instructed to imitate the model voice as accurately as possible (explicit imitation), whereas the other half performed a simple oral identification task (implicit imitation). Contrary to predictions based on L1 imitation studies, explicit instructions did not increase the magnitude of convergence in L2 learners in our study. Moreover, the results showed that the Czech and Polish participants exhibited comparable degrees of convergence with the native English model, thus replicating the null effect of instruction type across two language groups. We discuss the current results by offering two lines of reasoning as to why explicit instructions did not, in our study or more generally, lead to more imitation in L2 speech.

Adult language learners frequently struggle with possessive pronouns, and classroom evidence confirms these difficulties for learners of German. This study examines the acquisition of possessive agreement in L3 German by L1 Polish-L2 English speakers, focusing on third-person singular pronouns. The primary aim is to determine whether difficulties with possessive agreement arise from structural differences between Polish and German, and to explore the role of developing proficiency in L2 English, a language that is invariably part of the Polish education system, in the acquisition process. Using a subtractive language group design, L3 learners were compared with L1 English-L2 German learners to isolate the effect of Polish. Participants completed an untimed acceptability judgement task comprising felicitous and infelicitous items, further manipulated for possessor gender and for gender match between the possessor and the possessee noun. The results show that both groups performed similarly, indicating no non-facilitative influence from L1 Polish. Moreover, higher general L2 English proficiency predicted better performance in L3 German, suggesting proficiency-dependent facilitation from structurally similar English. Finally, participants' accuracy for infelicitous items was below chance, confirming that possessive agreement constitutes an inherently challenging domain in adult language learning.

The present study aimed to investigate the relationship between sleep behaviors and receptive vocabulary in bilingual autistic children. While the facilitating role of sleep in language development is well established in typically developing (TD) children, autistic children commonly experience both sleep disturbances and language difficulties. However, little is known about the relationship between these factors, particularly with respect to second language (L2) vocabulary development. This cross-sectional study addresses this important and underexplored issue. We examined sleep behaviors in 36 autistic children and 40 typically developing (TD) children (aged 5-10years) in Hong Kong using a parent-administered sleep questionnaire, the Children's Sleep Habits Questionnaire (CSHQ). Receptive vocabulary in the first language (L1) and L2 receptive was assessed using standardized tests. Autistic children exhibited significantly greater sleep disturbances than their TD peers, including more frequent night wakings and parasomnias (e.g., bedwetting, sleep talking, and teeth grinding). Importantly, sleep disturbances in autistic children were adversely associated with L2 vocabulary scores (daytime sleepiness: B = -2.26, p = 0.019), but less so with L1. Autistic children who experienced greater daytime sleepiness showed lower L2 vocabulary scores, likely reflecting reduced attention and working memory in the cognitively demanding context of L2 learning. These findings highlight the association between sleep behaviors and L2 vocabulary in autistic children. Future longitudinal and intervention-based research should further investigate the directionality of these relationships.

The ability of second language (L2) learners to guess the meanings of unfamiliar words, which is known as lexical inference, is crucial for learning words and for reading comprehension. However, the extent to which L2 learners can make effective use of the contextual resources surrounding unfamiliar words remains uncertain, as many L2 studies seem to suggest a low success rate for lexical inferencing in context; furthermore, whether the relationship between contextual richness and the success of lexical inferencing is influenced by L2 learners' linguistic knowledge (i.e., vocabulary and grammatical knowledge) is undetermined. Sixty-six L2 Chinese learners who were attending Chinese universities participated voluntarily in this study. All the participants completed four computerized tasks: a short-term memory task, a vocabulary knowledge task, a grammatical knowledge task, and a lexical inferencing task with three contextual conditions. The results revealed that: 1) regardless of their linguistic knowledge, L2 learners performed better in lexical inference when provided with a more informative context compared to a less informative or a non-informative context, indicating that the degree of contextual richness plays a significant role in L2 learners' success; 2) L2 learners with greater linguistic knowledge performed marginally better when inferring the meanings of unknown words in the more informative context than did those with less linguistic knowledge; and. 3) although L2 learners' linguistic knowledge did not generally have a moderating effect on their lexical inference via the use of contextual information, there appeared to be some complexity in this relationship for participants with greater linguistic knowledge.

Boredom fuels boredom: An experience sampling study on L2 learner and teacher boredom in reading classes.

Unpacking GAI-induced academic emotions: L2 learners’ emotional responses to GAI-assisted grammatical complexity development in L2 writing

A LLM-based pedagogical framework for active, inquiry-based and adaptive learning in L2 writing

Idiomatic expressions pose a considerable obstacle in second language acquisition due to their non-literal interpretations and profound cultural significance. Arabic idioms are notably intricate, necessitating learners to utilise contextual, cognitive, and cultural information for practical interpretation. Notwithstanding their communicative significance, idioms are inadequately represented in Arabic language education and scholarship. This study examines how second language (L2) learners of Arabic interpret idiomatic idioms, emphasising their perceptions, cognitive processes, and the psychological aspects that affect comprehension. Data were gathered from 100 intermediate to advanced L2 learners utilising a quantitative, descriptive-correlational methodology via a structured questionnaire. The measure examined learners' exposure to idioms, perceived difficulty, strategic utilisation, motivating influences, and interpretative accuracy. Research indicates that although learners acknowledge the communicative significance of idioms, they usually regard them as challenging and rarely encounter them in formal education. Contextual inference became the predominant comprehension approach, succeeded by dictionary utilisation and peer consultation. Motivation and cultural experience exhibited a positive correlation with idiom comprehension, although emotional context showed no impact. Students exhibited more precision with semantically transparent idioms and those found in authentic sources. These findings underscore the need for more explicit and contextually rich idiomatic instruction in Arabic language education. The research enhances psycholinguistic and applied linguistic studies by emphasising the interaction between cognitive processes and emotional aspects in idiom processing. • L2 learners think that Arabic idioms are important but hard to master. More over 80% of the people who took part said that idioms were important for communication, yet 61% said they were hard or very hard to understand. This shows that there is a difference between knowing how useful idioms are and being sure that you understand them. • The main way to understand idioms is through contextual inference. Seventy-six percent of students utilize cues from the context to figure out idioms, while fifty-two percent use a dictionary and thirty-eight percent ask their friends. This means that it's better to learn idioms in rich, relevant situations than by themselves. • Motivation and exposure to other cultures make it much easier to understand idioms. Students who were more motivated and had more access to Arabic media (such dramas and podcasts) understood idioms better. These elements were positively associated to how accurate the interpretations were, showing how important emotional and experiential aspects are in learning a language. • The emotional context doesn't have a big effect on how idioms are processed. Psycholinguistic theory says that emotional states (such anger or joy) should help people comprehend idioms, but 47% of the people who took part were not sure if they did. This suggests that emotional salience may not be a good way to help people learn idioms. • Learners are better at figuring out idioms that are semantically clear. Sixty-three percent of learners properly understood idioms like "شد الرحال" ("to pack up and leave"), but only thirty-six percent understood culturally sophisticated idioms like "كأن على رؤوسهم الطير" ("they were completely silent"). This backs with the ideas about familiarity and decomposability in idiom processing. • Learners still don't use idioms very often. Only 29% of the people who took part said they used idioms in speech or writing, and majority of them did so in school or written work. This shows that we need teaching methods that encourage the active and spontaneous usage of idioms in conversation. • The results support teaching idioms in Arabic language classes in a clear and context-rich way. The study suggests that idioms should be taught early on using real-world examples, comparisons between languages, and multimedia input to improve students' cultural literacy and practical skills.

How can L2 motivational self system promote motivated learning behavior in Chinese characters learning among international students in China? The contribution of learning anxiety: A self-regulatory learning perspective.

Motivation, anxiety, and willingness to communicate: Self-guides and affective pathways among CFL learners in multilingual Central Asia.