Boredom fuels boredom: An experience sampling study on L2 learner and teacher boredom in reading classes.

Unpacking GAI-induced academic emotions: L2 learners’ emotional responses to GAI-assisted grammatical complexity development in L2 writing

A LLM-based pedagogical framework for active, inquiry-based and adaptive learning in L2 writing

Idiomatic expressions pose a considerable obstacle in second language acquisition due to their non-literal interpretations and profound cultural significance. Arabic idioms are notably intricate, necessitating learners to utilise contextual, cognitive, and cultural information for practical interpretation. Notwithstanding their communicative significance, idioms are inadequately represented in Arabic language education and scholarship. This study examines how second language (L2) learners of Arabic interpret idiomatic idioms, emphasising their perceptions, cognitive processes, and the psychological aspects that affect comprehension. Data were gathered from 100 intermediate to advanced L2 learners utilising a quantitative, descriptive-correlational methodology via a structured questionnaire. The measure examined learners' exposure to idioms, perceived difficulty, strategic utilisation, motivating influences, and interpretative accuracy. Research indicates that although learners acknowledge the communicative significance of idioms, they usually regard them as challenging and rarely encounter them in formal education. Contextual inference became the predominant comprehension approach, succeeded by dictionary utilisation and peer consultation. Motivation and cultural experience exhibited a positive correlation with idiom comprehension, although emotional context showed no impact. Students exhibited more precision with semantically transparent idioms and those found in authentic sources. These findings underscore the need for more explicit and contextually rich idiomatic instruction in Arabic language education. The research enhances psycholinguistic and applied linguistic studies by emphasising the interaction between cognitive processes and emotional aspects in idiom processing. • L2 learners think that Arabic idioms are important but hard to master. More over 80% of the people who took part said that idioms were important for communication, yet 61% said they were hard or very hard to understand. This shows that there is a difference between knowing how useful idioms are and being sure that you understand them. • The main way to understand idioms is through contextual inference. Seventy-six percent of students utilize cues from the context to figure out idioms, while fifty-two percent use a dictionary and thirty-eight percent ask their friends. This means that it's better to learn idioms in rich, relevant situations than by themselves. • Motivation and exposure to other cultures make it much easier to understand idioms. Students who were more motivated and had more access to Arabic media (such dramas and podcasts) understood idioms better. These elements were positively associated to how accurate the interpretations were, showing how important emotional and experiential aspects are in learning a language. • The emotional context doesn't have a big effect on how idioms are processed. Psycholinguistic theory says that emotional states (such anger or joy) should help people comprehend idioms, but 47% of the people who took part were not sure if they did. This suggests that emotional salience may not be a good way to help people learn idioms. • Learners are better at figuring out idioms that are semantically clear. Sixty-three percent of learners properly understood idioms like "شد الرحال" ("to pack up and leave"), but only thirty-six percent understood culturally sophisticated idioms like "كأن على رؤوسهم الطير" ("they were completely silent"). This backs with the ideas about familiarity and decomposability in idiom processing. • Learners still don't use idioms very often. Only 29% of the people who took part said they used idioms in speech or writing, and majority of them did so in school or written work. This shows that we need teaching methods that encourage the active and spontaneous usage of idioms in conversation. • The results support teaching idioms in Arabic language classes in a clear and context-rich way. The study suggests that idioms should be taught early on using real-world examples, comparisons between languages, and multimedia input to improve students' cultural literacy and practical skills.

How can L2 motivational self system promote motivated learning behavior in Chinese characters learning among international students in China? The contribution of learning anxiety: A self-regulatory learning perspective.

Motivation, anxiety, and willingness to communicate: Self-guides and affective pathways among CFL learners in multilingual Central Asia.

Dynamic assessment (DA), grounded in Vygotsky's sociocultural theory (SCT), evaluates learners' developmental potential through mediated support within the zone of proximal development (ZPD). However, limited research has examined how AI-assisted DA (AI-DA) may influence both learners' psychological attributes and language performance. This concurrent mixed-methods study investigated the effects of AI-assisted DA (AI-DA) on Chinese English-as-a-Foreign-Language (EFL) learners' academic buoyancy, academic resilience, and reading comprehension. Conducted at a university in China, the study involved two intact classes ( N = 92) randomized into an experimental group receiving AI-assisted DA and a control group undergoing teacher-fronted sessions over 16 weeks. Qualitative data were collected through semi-structured interviews and focus group discussions to explore learners' perceptions of buoyancy and resilience, while quantitative data were obtained using a validated reading comprehension test. hematic analysis revealed that AI-DA enhanced learners' academic buoyancy by reducing daily frustrations and strengthened resilience through adaptive scaffolding that encouraged persistence. The quantitative analyses using t-tests and Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) demonstrated that the experimental group exhibited significantly higher reading comprehension compared to their peers in the control group. Overall, the findings suggest that AI-assisted dynamic assessment can simultaneously support L2 reading development and learners' psychological adaptability in academic contexts.

With the reconceptualization of feedback as an individual resource that learners proactively engage in, the notion of feedback-seeking behaviour (FSB) has received increasing research attention in language learning contexts. While different variables have been identified as the antecedents of feedback-seeking, the predictive role of intellectual humility has been neglected in this line of research. Therefore, this study examined how intellectual humility (as a composite construct) and its subcomponents (i.e., independence of intellect and ego, openness to revising one’s viewpoint, respect for others’ viewpoints, and lack of intellectual overconfidence) predicted FSBs in L2 learners. The study was conducted through a questionnaire survey with undergraduate EFL students. The results of standard multiple regression analyses revealed the predictive role of intellectual humility (composite) in feedback monitoring, feedback inquiry/teacher, and feedback inquiry/others. The results further revealed that openness to revising one’s viewpoint, respect for others’ viewpoints, and lack of intellectual overconfidence predicted feedback monitoring. For feedback inquiry/teacher, respect for others’ viewpoints, independence of intellect and ego, and openness to revising one’s viewpoint were found to be strong predictors. Finally, independence of intellect and ego and lack of intellectual overconfidence were found to predict feedback inquiry/others. Implications are provided for language instructional programs.

This exploratory study aims to contribute to the investigation of L2 learners' use of multiword sequences by quantitatively determining the frequency of use of phonologically coherent sequences in simulated oral pair exams, describing the discourse functions fulfilled by these sequences, and identifying possible correlations between frequency of use and language level. Although the learners under investigation are largely able to realize the functions required to complete the interactive tasks, their repertoire of multi-word sequences is, in general, quite limited. The widespread absence of these expressions coupled with a strong transfer from the L1 may be due to the fact that the L2 German has so far been acquired in the country of origin, where opportunities for authentic interaction, acquiring and using the word combinations commonly used for this purpose are very limited.

ABSTRACT Purpose: This study explores the impact of translanguaging pedagogy on third language (L3) Spanish learners’ oracy skills and multilingual identity development in a Turkish higher education context. Design/methodology/approach: Grounded in translanguaging theory and a multi-theoretical conceptualization of multilingual identity, the study employs a convergent mixed-methods design integrating quantitative and qualitative data. Sixty Turkish university students participated in an eight-week L3 Spanish course. Pre- and post-tests assessed learners’ oracy skills – listening comprehension and oral production – in a group receiving translanguaging pedagogy and a comparison group receiving monolingual instruction. Findings: Independent samples t-test analyzes revealed significantly greater gains in both listening and speaking skills among learners receiving translanguaging pedagogy, indicating the positive impact of translanguaging pedagogy on L3 oracy development. To examine identity-related changes, interviews and reflective journals were analyzed thematically, revealing three interconnected multilingual identity trajectories: (1) from fragmentation to flow – integrating multilingual selves; (2) from silence to belonging – claiming multilingual legitimacy; and (3) from constraint to agency – repositioning as empowered multilinguals. These findings suggest that translanguaging pedagogy not only enhances linguistic development but also supports identity negotiation, coherence, and agency among emerging multilinguals. Originality/value: By extending translanguaging scholarship beyond L2 English contexts, the study highlights the transformative potential of inclusive pedagogies that legitimize learners’ full linguistic repertoires in L3 learning environments.

ABSTRACT In recent decades, metacognitive instruction (MI) has shown promise in enhancing listening interaction across diverse learner profiles. However, as a key component of communication in a second language (L2), learners’ willingness to listen is underexplored. This study investigated the impact of metacognitive instruction (MI) on listening comprehension and metacognitive awareness among willing-to-listen L2 learners. A total of 100 intermediate Iranian learners (24 males and 76 females), aged 18 to 24, were identified as willing-to-listen and randomly assigned to two groups. The treatment group (n = 50) received 10 sessions of MI, while the control group (n = 50) followed a conventional approach. Participants in both groups completed the International English Language Testing System (IELTS) listening tests and the Metacognitive Awareness Listening Questionnaire (MALQ) before and after the metacognitive instruction. Subsequently, 20 participants from the treatment group were randomly interviewed to explore their attitudes toward MI. Results revealed significant gains in both listening comprehension and metacognitive awareness in the treatment group. Additionally, qualitative data reinforced these findings, highlighting improved listening comprehension, increased metacognitive awareness, higher self-confidence, and reduced anxiety. This study further offered pedagogical implications for using metacognitive instruction to support listening comprehension and metacognitive awareness among willing-to-listen L2 learners.

<p>Grounded in mindset theory, this study investigated the predictive effect of growth language mindsets on L2 (learners’ foreign or second language) achievement among gifted EFL high school students in Vietnam. While previous research has shown mixed evidence regarding the role of mindsets in L2 learning, little is known about their influence in populations characterized by exceptional academic aptitude. A sample of 147 students, aged 15 to 17, from three gifted high schools in the Mekong Delta region completed a growth language mindset questionnaire, which included beliefs about general language intelligence, L2 aptitude, and age sensitivity in L2 learning. Self-reported final exam scores were employed as the indicator of L2 achievement. Following rigorous data screening, 135 valid cases were analyzed using Pearson correlation and linear regression. The results demonstrated a significant positive correlation between growth language mindsets and L2 achievement (<em>r</em> = 0.32, <em>p</em> < 0.001). Regression analysis further revealed that growth language mindsets explained 40.5% of the variance in students’ L2 performance (β = 0.64, <em>p</em> < 0.001). These findings underscore the essential role of growth-oriented beliefs in shaping high-ability students’ language outcomes, extending prior work by situating mindset theory within the underexplored context of gifted EFL education in Vietnam. The study contributes empirical evidence to the ongoing debate on the predictive power of growth mindsets, while also offering practical implications for fostering resilience, sustained effort, and mastery-oriented learning in advanced language classrooms.</p>

Abstract This study aimed to test if morphological complexity (MC) could predict L2 English writing quality (L2WQ) and if the predictive power of MC would differ under integrated and independent task conditions. The data sources of the study were 234 integrated and 639 independent reliably-scored argumentative essays. Sixty-six MC indices were calculated for each text in the corpora, and the strongest possible prediction models were obtained using ElasticNet regression with recursive feature elimination and cross-validation. The results showed that the best model for integrated L2WQ was obtained with 13 MC indices, explaining almost half of the variance. For independent L2WQ, the best model could explain slightly less than one tenth of the variance with 13 MC indices. The findings underscore the need to devise an L2 MC development framework across language proficiency levels and to include MC as a component in the assessment of L2WQ. Additionally, the findings emphasize the necessity to increase morphological awareness among L2 learners.

ABSTRACT This study investigates tertiary-level L2 learners’ perceptions of hybrid language education by comparing the face-to-face and online components across different proficiency levels. It examines how learners’ satisfaction, perceived skill development, interaction patterns, and motivation vary within a single hybrid program. A mixed-methods design was employed. Quantitative data were collected from 253 students at three proficiency levels (A1, A2, B1) using a validated questionnaire, while qualitative data were obtained through semi-structured focus group interviews with 12 volunteers. Quantitative and qualitative findings were integrated to provide a comprehensive understanding of learner perceptions. Results indicate that students rated the face-to-face component more positively than the online component across all skills, particularly for speaking, grammar, and writing. Proficiency level significantly influenced perceptions of the online component, with lower-level learners expressing more negative views. Learners also highlighted both affordances (flexibility, practicality) and challenges (reduced interaction, concentration difficulties) of hybrid instruction. This study offers a novel perspective by examining how learners’ proficiency levels directly shape their perceptions of hybrid language education within a single program. Moreover, it investigates a model in which students experience both online and face-to-face instruction within the same week, rather than comparing separate cohorts or modalities. This design provides evidence-based insights for curriculum designers and teacher educators on how hybrid models can be tailored to different learner profiles, thereby enhancing engagement and effectiveness in L2 learning contexts.

ABSTRACT The ability to interact is an integral aspect of speaking proficiency. Therefore, methods of assessing interaction need to be incorporated into second language (L2) speaking tests. The main purpose of this exploratory study is to attempt to quantify interactional competence (IC) in a Japanese university EFL (English as a foreign language) context, in order to create a tool that has practical classroom applications. A secondary purpose is to investigate the relationship between IC and utterance fluency. Results indicated that the assessment tool was able to differentiate participants in terms of their IC, which suggests that it can measure student performance effectively. Results further suggested that IC is distinct from fluency, which has major implications for language assessment and pedagogy. More fluent speakers, as measured using a monologue task, tended to talk the most in a group discussion; however, they did not always score highly in terms of IC or exhibit a wide variety of interactional repertoires. This finding suggests that L2 learners—regardless of their speaking fluency or linguistic proficiency—could benefit from being taught techniques and strategies that enhance their ability to interact effectively. It also suggests that the construct of IC should be assessed in its own right.

Abstract Although artificial intelligence (AI) technology offers a promising approach to mitigate biases in listener judgments, the impact of different first language (L1) accents on AI understanding has not been widely investigated. Therefore, the current study examined (a) the presence of bias in AI intelligibility of L2‐accented speech and (b) differences in intelligibility as assessed by human experts and AI. Three data sets were used in this study: Data set 1 ( n = 12) with L2 speakers of Chinese, Indian, Spanish, and South African English, Data set 2 ( n = 60) with read‐aloud samples from the same L1s, and Data set 3 ( n = 40) with TOEFL responses from Arabic, Chinese, Korean, and Spanish speakers. Intelligibility was operationalized through transcription, using Apple's Siri and Google Assistant. Word error rates (WER) were calculated by an expert coder, and five human experts transcribed Data set 3 for comparison. Results showed that (a) AI systems' transcription accuracy varied by L1, and (b) human raters did not exhibit this bias. The findings have important implications for L2 learners and teachers by raising awareness of AI‐related fairness issues in L2 classrooms and technology applications.

The extent to which adult second language (L2) learners can achieve native-like neural processing of complex inflectional morphology remains unresolved. This study used event-related fMRI to examine neural mechanisms underlying the potential gradual achievement of L1-like proficiency in adult learners of Finnish (L2) with Russian as their first language (L1). Three groups participated: late beginner learners (N = 15, mean exposure to Finnish 24.9 months), late advanced learners (N = 15, mean exposure to Finnish 131.8 months), and native Finnish speakers (N = 15). Participants completed overt and covert word generation tasks. In the overt task, they spoke an inflected word aloud; in the covert task, they silently generated a form and judged a visually presented form as correct or incorrect. Stimuli included high-, medium-frequency, and pseudoword stems, with or without consonant gradation (stem allomorphy). Beginners had significantly higher error rates in both tasks than advanced learners and native speakers, indicating challenges in morphological encoding and recognition. Advanced learners performed comparably to native speakers. Furthermore, only advanced learners and native speakers exhibited increased BOLD responses in the LIFG and MFG for stems requiring consonant gradation, suggesting a mechanism for the lexical lookup of stems. These findings indicate that proficient adult L2 learners can develop native-like neural patterns of morphological processing, particularly in handling complex inflectional forms. This research contributes to understanding the neural mechanisms underlying morphological development in adult L2 acquisition and underscores the critical role of proficiency in achieving native-like processing of morphological complexity. • Advanced L2 learners show native-like brain activation during word inflection. • Beginners rely on word frequency, showing higher BOLD for high freq. and pseudo words. • CG stems cause more errors and stronger BOLD than NoCG stems across all groups. • Only natives and advanced learners show ROI activation differences for CG stems.

Statistical learning allows language learners to implicitly track regularities in input. Prior studies have suggested that second language (L2) learning affects statistical learning, but the nature of this relationship remains unclear. Does L2 learning broadly enhance sensitivity to statistical structure, selectively tune learners to patterns emphasized in the learned language, or both? We tested English‐speaking adults enrolled in introductory Mandarin or Spanish courses, along with English monolingual controls, on two statistical learning tasks: a tonal word segmentation task and a non‐adjacent dependency (NAD) learning task. Participants completed both tasks at the beginning of instruction and again after two academic terms. All groups performed above chance in the tonal task, but none showed significant improvement over time, including Mandarin learners. In contrast, only Spanish learners demonstrated increased sensitivity to NADs over time. These findings suggest that statistical learning is not uniformly boosted by L2 experience. Instead, L2 exposure may selectively tune learners' sensitivity to relational patterns that are emphasized in their linguistic experience. More broadly, the results highlight how the structure of linguistic experience can shape statistical learning mechanisms.

The evolving impact of virtual reality-based cultural immersion: A longitudinal mixed-methods study on EFL learners' intercultural sensitivity, willingness to communicate, and L2 learning motivation.

ABSTRACT While the adoption of English names by Chinese individuals is well-researched, the reverse practice by L2 learners remains underexplored as a site for identity construction. This study examines how learners navigate the tension between ‘cultural integration’ and ‘self-expression’ through their Chinese naming practices. Using a grounded theory approach on in-depth interviews, we find a dynamic three-stage framework: ‘naming’, ‘evaluation’, and ‘usage’. We argue the Chinese name is not a static symbol, but a dynamic field where the acts of naming, evaluation, and usage are core practices for constructing, negotiating, and performing a cross-cultural identity.