L1 Attrition Research Articles

Comparing foreign accent in L1 attrition and L2 acquisition: Range and rater effects

This study examines the methodology of global foreign accent ratings in studies on L2 speech production. In three experiments, we test how variation in raters, range within speech samples, as well as instructions and procedures affects ratings of accent in predominantly monolingual speakers of German, non-native speakers of German, as well as long-term emigrants from Germany, that is, L1 attriters. The findings show that rater differences do not result in systematic changes in rating patterns. In contrast, range effects and effects of familiarity with accented speech lead to shifts in absolute and relative ratings. Including more strongly foreign-accented samples leads to lower judgements for the entire group of L2 speakers compared to natives. Similarly, lower familiarity with foreign accent results in more variable and more strongly foreign-accented judgements. We discuss the implications for research on L2 pronunciation as well as for the interpretation of nativeness in L2 studies and language testing more generally.

Changes in Neural Activation Patterns and Brain Anatomy as a Function of Non-Pathological First Language Attrition

In recent years the Critical Period Hypothesis of language acquisition has come under close scrutiny. The premise that native-like language proficiency can only be attained if the language is learned early in life seems difficult to maintain, as neuroimaging data have revealed a greater plasticity of the human brain to master new languages than has previously been assumed. The field of non-pathological first language (L1) attrition has not contributed much to this debate. Adding attrition perspectives, however, can inform the field of language learning and the critical period in general: learning a language early in life should leave long-lasting traces in the neural circuit. But investigations of this nature would also directly benefit the field of L1 attrition itself. Attrition theories have largely built on behavioral paradigms, and two pivotal questions remain unanswered but could be addressed using neuroimaging techniques: 1) Is the cause of L1 attrition mainly L1 non-use or rather the introduction and mastery of a second language (L2)? 2) is L1 attrition an irreversible, permanent phenomenon or does it merely reflect a temporary inaccessibility of the L1 system? This paper aims to review the scantly available evidence for functional and/or anatomical brain changes as a function of non-pathological L1 attrition, specifically focusing on the two outstanding questions above. Building on previous insights, this paper theorizes about L1 attrition-induced neurological changes that have not been addressed in previous work and formulates goals and avenues for future studies.

Dynamics of first language attrition across the lifespan

This special issue explores the relevance of Dynamic Systems Theory ( henceforth DST) to research in first language attrition (henceforth LI attrition). While research in LI attrition has traditionally drawn on paradigms in other areas of linguistic enquiry, e.g. approaches current in L2 acquisition studies, important developments across a range of disciplines have paved the way for a fundamen- tally different conceptualisation of language development. In this special issue, DST guides our enquiry into LI attrition, which we view as one specific dynamic process of change in language development.DST was first linked to LI attrition by Herdina and Jessner (2002), and then further developed by de Bot, who suggested that DST provides 'a fresh and promising perspective on language attri- tion as a normal part of language development and not as a lamentable loss of what once was' (2004, p. 233). De Bot argued that a DST-based model of language development should be appli- cable to language attrition and that the theoretical underpinning of LI attrition research would be strengthened by adopting this perspective (see also Ecke, 2004). However, de Bot also pointed to methodological challenges implicit in applying a DST perspective to LI attrition. Here, one of the most salient challenges is actually testing DST, a feat yet to be accomplished. Nevertheless, eight years on, the purpose of this special issue is to present for the first time empirical research which has adopted the DST framework to study LI attrition across the lifespan.In this introduction, two propositions related to the relevance of DST in LI attrition research are discussed.(1) LI attrition as such can be interpreted as evidence against the view that once an LI is acquired 'in full' (i.e. throughout childhood and up to the onset of puberty), it displays invariance which is not evidenced in a second language (henceforth L2, i.e. a language acquired post-puberty). Instead, it is proposed here that L1 attrition /as such/ is evidence for the view that the LI develops dynamically across the lifespan.(2) LI attrition itself is dynamic. As it unfolds, often in the context of a life-changing event such as migration to a new country and attendant L2 acquisition, it does so dynamically in a process of constant change and in interaction with the developing L2 and environment.We define and contextualise key concepts (LI attrition and DST) in order to relate them to our two propositions. We further discuss important features of DST in relation to the contributions of this special issue, as well as some methodological challenges relevant for studying the dynamics of LI attrition across the lifespan.LI attritionWe delimit LI attrition to non-pathological, non-age related changes in the LI of a late bilingual, which often entail reduced proficiency and loss of structural features previously acquired (see Kopke & Schmid, 2004; Schmid, 2011). While LI attrition may potentially occur for reasons not involving another language, e.g. the 'desert island situation' (Sharwood Smith & van Buren (1991, p. 22), it usually unfolds alongside the development of an L2, for example after relocation to a new country where the ambient language is acquired. Such relocation may involve either being entirely cut-off from the LI, as often happens with adopted children (Isurin, 2000), or at least a reduction in contact with the LI.Moreover, LI attrition contrasts with language change processes at the group or societal level, such as intergenerational language shift, although it may be a precursor to, and share certain simi- larities with, such macro processes. Accordingly, a conceptual and terminological distinction between micro-level LI attrition and macro-level language shift under the cover term of language loss has been drawn (de Bot, 1998).Lowered proficiency in the LI, or linguistic behaviour that differs from 'typical speakers' (Cook, 2003, p. …

On the effects of second language immersion on first language production

The present study was aimed at investigating how the effects of a second language (L2) immersion on first language (L1) production are modulated by lexical frequency and the cognate status of words. By means of a picture naming and a semantic fluency task, we longitudinally explored the changes in L1 performance of a group of immersed learners. Our results revealed slower naming latencies at the end than at the beginning of the immersion period but only for those pictures whose corresponding names were low frequency and non-cognates. Moreover, the semantic fluency task revealed a decrease in the percentage of non-cognate words produced at the end of the immersion period. The observed decline in the accessibility to L1 words after a short L2 immersion period is explained in terms of the general bilingual lexical access disadvantage and studies of L1 attrition in speech production. Specifically, the present findings are more in line with theoretical accounts that consider lexical difficulties to be the result of changes in the frequency of use of the L1 during a short L2 immersion period.

First language attrition.

Speakers who live in an L2 environment for an extended period of time often experience change in the way in which they use their L1, a process referred to as L1 attrition. This article provides an overview of language attrition phenomena at various linguistic levels. However, attrition cannot be trivially or linearly related to factors such as the frequency of use of the L1. It is argued here that attrition phenomena are not the outcome of a change to the underlying linguistic system nor of access problems due to an increase in activation thresholds, but of cross-linguistic influence in online speech production. WIREs Cogn Sci 2013, 4:117-123. doi: 10.1002/wcs.1218 For further resources related to this article, please visit the WIREs website.

Dynamic systems, maturational constraints and L1 phonetic attrition

The present study comprises a phonetic analysis of the lateral phoneme /l/ in the first (L1) and second language (L2) of 10 late German–English bilinguals. The primary objective of the study was to compare the predictive power of dynamic systems theory with that of maturational constraints through a phonetic investigation of L1 attrition in the lateral phoneme /l/ of the late bilinguals. The results revealed L1 attrition in the lateral phoneme /l/, as well as a high degree of interpersonal and intrapersonal variation. These patterns are discussed in relation to dynamic systems theory and maturational constraints. Moreover, the degree of permanency of L1 attrition is discussed in relation to methodological considerations in studies on L1 attrition. It is proposed that maturational constraints are insufficient in explaining the results and that bilingual language development can be more adequately explained through dynamic systems theory, which explicitly incorporates a multitude of predictor variables across the lifespan, in addition to age constraints.

Investigating the impact of attitude on first language attrition and second language acquisition from a Dynamic Systems Theory perspective

The factor attitude is generally considered to be among the most influential for first language (L1) attrition. Nevertheless, empirical validations have proven difficult to establish. While some studies could not find clear links between measures of attitude and L1 attrition (Hulsen, 2000; Yağmur, 1997), others showed that attitudes generated from exceptional life events strongly influenced attrition (Schmid, 2002) and that pragmatic vs. ideological motivation to emigrate and ensuing attitudes were clearly linked to L1 attrition (Ben-Rafael & Schmid, 2007). A closer examination of these studies yields a noteworthy pattern: those studies that relied on questionnaires (Hulsen, 2000, Yağmur, 1997) seemed to find no straight correlations between attitude and L1 performance, while the studies that used interviews (Ben-Rafael & Schmid, 2007; Schmid, 2002) established a clearer link between the two. The present study explores the impact of attitude – as measured through both questionnaires and interviews – on L1 attrition and second language (L2) proficiency. The quantitative analysis revealed partially significant results, thus suggesting that the factor attitude would have a limited impact on L1 attrition. Individual qualitative analyses, on the other hand, revealed important links between attitudes and the migrants’ language proficiency profiles. The article argues for a combination of methodological approaches in the study of L1 attrition and underlines the idea that individual-level analyses are well suited to capture the non-linearity of attitude and its impact on L1 attrition. These conclusions fit well with a Dynamic Systems Theory perspective in relation to the constant flux of attitude perceptions and their unpredictable role in attrition (de Bot, Lowie & Verspoor, 2007).

A dynamic perspective on late bilinguals’ linguistic development in an L2 environment

This paper provides a dynamic perspective on the linguistic development of adult bilinguals in an L2 environment, and an empirical test for the principles formulated within a dynamic systems approach to L1 attrition. It presents a qualitative analysis of the personal narratives of the post-migratory linguistic development of 27 adult German–English bilinguals residing in Ireland, with particular focus on two participants’ stories. Participants responded to a comprehensive sociolinguistic questionnaire, providing self-ratings of current and past language proficiency in all their languages, and reflecting on the processes of and factors impacting on L2 acquisition and L1 attrition in the L2 environment. These data are complemented by proficiency data elicited with a test battery in L1 German and L2 English. Analyses revealed that most participants have succeeded both in acquiring English to a high level, and in maintaining German. However, other L2s as a rule show a pattern of decline. The results are discussed with recourse to dynamic conceptions of multilingual development.

Tracking tip-of-the-tongue states in a multilingual speaker: Evidence of attrition or instability in lexical systems?

How stable or how permeable to attrition are a multilingual’s first and second languages during life periods characterized by dynamic changes in language-use frequencies? This longitudinal study sheds some light on this issue by investigating changing patterns in a multilingual speaker’s tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) states. Over a period of 10 years, the multilingual recorded more than 100 TOT states, together with 400 non-target word associations, as they occurred with words from the speaker’s five languages (L1 German, L2 Russian, L3 English, L4 Spanish, and L5 Portuguese). During the period, the L1 was consistently used less than the L3 and L4, providing a setting in which L1 attrition might occur. Data were analyzed with respect to the changing frequencies of TOT state occurrence in the different languages, the contribution of each language to the word associations generated during word search, the typological relatedness of targets and associates, and the linguistic context of initial learning of each language. Rates of TOT states and percentages of cross-language word associations and within-language word associations fluctuated in response to dynamic patterns of language use and maintenance, demonstrating the value of data on word-retrieval failure for studies of language attrition. The data reveal that the speaker’s L1 appeared to gain stability after an early period suggestive of attrition, despite low frequency of use overall. This finding supports the view that the L1 is exceptional, highly resistant to attrition, but also suggests that temporary impairment of L1 can occur when a multilingual speaker’s overall set of interacting language systems comes out of balance.

Language attrition and code-switching among US Americans in Germany

The use of two or more languages in conversation is very common in immigration contexts. When immigrants learn a second language (L2) in their host cultures, the acquisition of the L2 often influences their native languages (L1s). This influence often manifests as language attrition, the non-pathological loss of the native language due to emigration and the related lack of exposure to the mother tongue (Kopke and Schmid 2004:5). Native language retrieval problems can then arise on lexical or structural levels since the L2 lexicon and structure are more readily available to the immigrant speaker. In addition to L1 attrition, L2 language items often get inserted into the L1 speech for socially motivated reasons. Code-switching in immigration contexts is the simultaneous use of, for example, L1 and L2 in discourse, where cultural and social meaning is often attached to the language choice immigrants make (Schely-Newman 1998:97; Scheu 2000:133). The differentiation and combined investigation of code-switching, which is socially motivated, and language attrition, which is predominantly a psycholinguistic issue, is a new and important approach to the analysis of bilingual data. In research so far the one area has hardly taken note of the other (Walters 2005). This article attempts to close the gap identified here as it investigates, in a connected way, functional aspects of code-switching and identifies selected socio-demographic factors that affect immigrants' lexical attrition. It reports on a study that applies a triangulation of qualitative and quantitative methods on a corpus of multilingual interviews with thirty people who had immigrated to Germany from the United States between 1964 and 2001. This paper discusses the overall distribution of occurrences of code-switching and lexical attrition across the corpus and sheds light on how code-switching and lexical attrition correlate with identity-related factors such as English language-related professions, social contact with other Americans and the length of residence in Germany (quantitative approach). On the other hand, it shows how intercultural identities are constructed through the employment of code-switching (qualitative approach). In this paper, I firstly provide a brief theoretical discussion of code-switching and lexical attrition. Secondly, I give a functional analysis of the bilingual language use among Americans living in Germany. Thirdly, I show how extralinguistic, identity-related factors correlate with the bilingual data and I discuss the relevance of distinguishing between code-switching and language attrition in intercultural identity research.

First-Language Attrition in Bengali-English–Speaking Individuals

Multilingual immigrants who live in an environment that does not support their first language (L1) can experience changes in their L1. Such changes, over long periods of time, can lead to attrition in L1. Existing studies examining L1 attrition have been focused on European languages and immigrants between the European and American continents. A group of researchers at the Graduate Center of the City University of New York (CUNY) sought to understand L1 attrition in South Asian immigrants with L1s that are very different in structure from English. In this study, we examined the relationship between language-use and language-immersion patterns that affect first and second language (L2) performance in Bengali-English speaking multilinguals. Language performance was measured by two lexical tasks—a picture-word task and verbal fluency measures—in both Bengali and English. Results indicated that decreased L1 use and low self-reported ratings of L1 predicted L1 attrition in these Bengali-English speaking individuals. Results also indicated that the earlier individuals are immersed in an L2 environment, the more likely it is that their first language will be affected by attrition. Thus, frequent use of L1 is important in order to maintain it, especially for immigrants who wish to pass their L1 on to future generations.

Perceived foreign accent in first language attrition and second language acquisition: The impact of age of acquisition and bilingualism

ABSTRACTThis study investigates constraints on ultimate attainment in second language (L2) pronunciation in a direct comparison of perceived foreign accent of 40 late L2 learners and 40 late first language (L1) attriters of German. Both groups were compared with 20 predominantly monolingual controls. Contrasting participants who acquired the target language from birth (monolinguals, L1 attriters) with late L2 learners, on the one hand, and bilinguals (L1 attriters, L2ers) with monolinguals, on the other hand, allowed us to disentangle the impacts of age of onset and bilingualism in speech production. At the group level, the attriters performed indistinguishably from controls, and both differed from the L2 group. However, 80% of all L2ers scored within the native (attriter) range. Correlational analyses with background factors further found some effects of use and language aptitude. These results show that acquiring a language from birth is not sufficient to guarantee nativelike pronunciation, and late acquisition does not necessarily prevent it. The results are discussed in the light of models on the role of age and cross-linguistic influence in L2 acquisition.

First language retention and attrition in an adult Guatemalan adoptee

This case study illustrates the long-term effects of interrupted input and subsequent re-exposure to the first language in childhood in the adult linguistic competence of an internationally adopted individual. Alicia — the subject of the case study — is a 34-year-old Guatemalan adopted by an American family at age 9 and raised in a small Mid-America town with no Hispanic population at that time. In several sessions, Alicia completed oral production and written tasks (including interpretation, judgment and truth value judgment tasks) targeting knowledge and use of Spanish morphosyntax. On the overall proficiency measures, Alicia demonstrates native-like knowledge of English and significant attrition in Spanish, although not to the extent reported in recent studies of Korean adoptees. Alicia’s degree of L1 attrition and retention after several years of severed input challenges Pallier et al. (2003) and Ventureyra et al.’s (2004) Language Replacement and Impediment Hypothesis, and is more consistent with the view that there are age effects for L1 attrition (Hyltenstam et al. 2009; Montrul 2008).

Second language acquisition and attrition

This issue consists of a collection of papers that focus on structural/grammatical aspects of the process of first language attrition. It presents an overview of current research, methodological issues and important questions regarding first language attrition. In particular, it addresses the two most prominent issues in current L1 attrition research: Can attrition effects impact on features of core syntax, or are they limited to interface phenomena?, and: What is the roleof age at onset (pre-/post-puberty) in this regard?

Singing a different tune in your native language: first language attrition of prosody

First language attrition refers to the changes which a first language (L1) undergoes when a second language (L2) is acquired in a context in which L1 use is reduced (Cook, 2003; Köpke, 2004). To date, some studies have focused on complete loss of an L1, for example in the case of children whose contact with their initial language ceased after adoption (Pallier et al., 2003; Ventureyra, Pallier, & Yoo, 2004). Others have investigated more subtle cases in which changes to the L1 occur, although intelligibility remains largely, or completely, unaffected (de Leeuw, Schmid, & Mennen, 2007; Flege, 1987; Flege & Eefting, 1987; Major, 1992; Mennen, 2004). The study at hand belongs to the latter category, comprising a fine phonetic analysis of prosody in 10 late consecutive German–English bilinguals. In general, the results indicate L1 attrition in the intonational alignment of the prenuclear rise. However, interpersonal variation was also evidenced: two bilinguals performed clearly within the English monolingual norm in their German while one bilingual evidenced no L1 attrition. Intrapersonal variation occurred in the form of the start of the prenuclear rise appearing to undergo more L1 attrition than the end. The results are discussed in relation to previous studies suggesting that L1 attrition is less likely to occur in late consecutive bilinguals than in early consecutive bilinguals and, more generally, with regard to transfer and interference.

A cross-generational study of language attrition in Yoruba English variation in Lagos, Nigeria

This paper examines the phenomenon of language attrition as one of the major components of generational differences in the use of Yoruba-English code-switching in the Lagos speech community. It is argued that while L1 loyalty may be associated with the members of the older generation, the younger generation tends more towards a preference for English, the L2, leading to L1 attrition. Our study also shows that this generational difference can be accounted for within the context of the social environment of bilingual speech behavior in this cosmopolitan Nigerian setting

In search for a unified model of L2 acquisition and L1 attrition

In search for a unified model of L2 acquisition and L1 attrition

Pinning down the concept of “interface” in bilingualism

The Interface Hypothesis (IH) was put forward by Sorace and colleagues as an attempt to account for patterns of non-convergence and residual optionality found at very advanced stages of adult second (L2)acquisition. The IH originally proposed that language structures involving an interface between syntax and other cognitive domains are less likely to be acquired completely than structures that do not involve this interface. At the same time, the IH was extended to bilingual first language (L1) acquisition and to the very early stages of L1 attrition, which exhibit optionality in precisely the same structures: this provides a unifying framework for the study of bilingual language development. This paper selectively reviews the research on the IH, addressing some common misinter-pretations and outlining the most recent interdisciplinary developments.

Disfluency Markers in L1 Attrition

Based on an analysis of the speech of long-term emigres of German and Dutch origin, the present investigation discusses to what extent hesitation patterns in language attrition may be the result of the creation of an interlanguage system, on the one hand, or of language-internal attrition patterns on the other. We compare speech samples elicited by a film retelling task from German emigres in Canada (n = 52) and the Netherlands (n = 50) and from Dutch emigres in Canada (n = 45) to retellings produced by predominantly monolingual control groups in Germany (n = 53) and the Netherlands (n = 45). Findings show that the attriting groups overuse empty pauses, repetitions, and retractions, whereas the distribution of filled pauses appears to conform more closely to the second language norm. An investigation of the location at which disfluency markers appear within the sentence suggests that they are indicators of difficulties that the attriters experience largely in the context of lexical retrieval.

L1 attrition and L2 acquisition

L1 attrition is increasingly being studied as a feature of bilingualism, taking into account the parallel process of L2 language acquisition in a migrant situation. Such situations may foster L1 attrition as a result of insufficient L1 input and competition or interaction with the language of the host community. In a study of 27 German late bilinguals resident in Ireland, the question of a possible interaction between the two language systems (German and English) is addressed. This paper reports on the results of two of the elicitation instruments used – a C-test as a measure of global language proficiency, and a verbal fluency task as a measure of lexical retrieval and bilingual dominance. The former is an unspeeded integrative task, while the latter taps lexical access as a function of the relative activation levels of the languages. The analysis focuses on the proficiency profiles of the bilingual participants vis-à-vis a German and an Irish control group to establish the level of L1 attrition and L2 acquisition, and the degree with which L1 and L2 proficiency correlate.