L-rhamnosyl Residues Research Articles

Anticoagulant Activity of Rhamnan Sulfate Isolated from Commercially Cultured <i>Monostroma nitidum</i>

The green seaweed, <i>Monostroma nitidum</i>, is widespread in Japan. In Okinawa Prefecture, the production of seaweed is performed using culture-nets that are seeded artificially. Algae contain a soluble polysaccharide, rhamnan sulfate. To estimate its applicability, the anticoagulant activity of rhamnan sulfate was investigated. Rhamanan sulfate was fractionated by ion-exchange chromatography on a DEAE-sepharose column, and two fractions (A and B) were obtained. Partially hydrolyzed rhamnan sulfates with different molecular mass (C1, C2 and C3) were also prepared. The activated partial thromboplastin time (APTT) test, prothrombin time (PT) and thrombin time (TT) were applied using human plasma and compared with standard heparin (174 units/mg). The native rhamnan sulfate (molecular mass, 630 kDa; sulfuric acid content, 22.7%), fraction A (12.4%) and fraction B (27.8%) showed approximately 73% APTT activity in comparison with that of standard heparin, but fraction C2 (molecular mass, 450 kDa) had a higher activity than that of the standard (107%). On the other hand, in the PT assay, all fractions except fraction C2 and C3 (370 kDa) showed higher activity approximately 120-155% greater than that of standard heparin. The TT activity of rhamnan sulfate depended on the sulfate content, and that of fraction B, which has high sulfuric acid content (27.8%), was 135-173% greater than that of heparin. The sulfate groups of L-rhamnosyl residues and carboxyl group of D-glucuronosyl residue on the trisaccharide side chains of the rhamnan sulfate might interact strongly with the active site of thrombin molecules. The results and discussion suggested that rhamnan sulfate from commercially cultured <i>Monostroma nitidum</i> could be a potential anticoagulant polysaccharide.

Computational evaluation of phytocompounds for combating drug resistant tuberculosis by multi-targeted therapy.

The cell wall of Mycobacterium tuberculosis interacts with the host counterpart during the pathogenesis of tuberculosis. L-rhamnosyl (L-Rha) residue, a linker connects the arabinogalactan and peptidoglycan moieties in the bacterial cell wall. The biosynthesis of L-rhamnose utilizes four successive enzymes RmlA, RmlB, RmlC and RmlD. Neither rhamnose nor the genes responsible for its synthesis are observed in humans. Thus, drugs inhibiting enzymes of this pathway are unlikely to interfere with metabolic pathways in humans. The adverse drug effects of first and second line drugs along with the development of multi-drug resistance tuberculosis have stimulated the research in search of new therapeutic drugs. Thus, it is attractive to hypothesize that inhibition of the biosynthesis of L-Rha would be lethal to the mycobacteria. Nature provides innumerable secondary metabolites with novel structural architectures with reported activity against M. tuberculosis. Combination of structure based virtual screening with physicochemical and pharmacokinetic studies against rhamnose pathway enzymes identified potential leads. The crucial screening studies recognized four phytocompounds butein, diospyrin, indicanine, and rumexneposide A with good binding affinity towards the rhamnose pathway proteins. Furthermore, the high throughput screening methods recognized butein, a secondary metabolite from Butea monosperma with strong anti-tubercular bioactive spectrum. Butein displayed promising anti-mycobacterial activity which is validated by Microplate alamar blue assay (MABA). The focus on novel agents like these phytocompounds which exhibit preference toward the successive enzymes of a single pathway can prevent the development of bacterial resistance.

Comparative analysis of flagellin glycans among pathovars of phytopathogenic Pseudomonas syringae

Flagellin is a principal component of the flagellum filament. Previously, we reported that the flagellin of Pseudomonas syringae pv. tabaci 6605 (Pta6605) was glycosylated by oligosaccharides composed of two or three l-rhamnosyl (l-Rha) residues and a terminal 4,6-dideoxy-4-(3-hydroxybutanamide)-2-O-methylglucopyranosyl residue. In this study, we characterized the chemical structure of flagellin glycans in P. syringae pathovars glycinea race 4 (Pgl4), phaseolicola 1448A (Pph1448A), tomato DC3000 (PtoDC3000), and syringae B728a (PsyB728a). Flagellin glycans were released by hydrazinolysis, labeled on the reducing ends with 2-aminopyridine (PA), and the PA-labeled oligosaccharides were isolated by high-performance liquid chromatography. The purified PA-labeled glycans were analyzed by mass spectrometry and NMR spectroscopy. The results showed that the glycans on flagellin of Pgl4, PtoDC3000, and Pph1448A were identical to those of Pta6605, which were characterized previously. The flagellin of PsyB728a is O-glycosylated with a novel trisaccharide identified as 2-acetamide-2-deoxy-β-d-glucopyranosyl-(1→2)-3-O-methyl-α-l-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)-l-rhamnose. Our data indicate that flagellin glycosylation of P. syringae pathovars has universality with little diversity.

Development of a Colorimetric Assay and Kinetic Analysis for Mycobacterium tuberculosis D-glucose-1-phosphate Thymidylyltransferase

dTDP-L-rhamnose as a sugar donor provides L-rhamnosyl residue in the synthesis of disaccharide linker (D-N-acetylglucosamine-L-rhamnose), the key structure of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis cell wall. Four enzymes are involved in the formation of dTDP-L-rhamnose and D-glucose-1-phosphate thymidylyltransferase (RmlA) catalyzes the first step of D-glucose-1-phosphate and dTTP to dTDP-D-glucose and PPi. The previous studies on RmlA essentiality proved RmlA as a potential target for antituberculosis drugs. However, there has not been a suitable assay for RmlA to screen inhibitors currently. In this study, the authors reported a microtiter plate–based colorimetric assay for RmlA enzyme activity. Using this assay, the kinetic properties of M. tuberculosis RmlA including initial velocity, optimal temperature, optimal pH, the effect of Mg2+, and kinetic parameters were determined. The establishment of the accurate and rapid colorimetric assay and kinetic analysis of M. tuberculosis RmlA will facilitate high-throughput screening of RmlA inhibitors.

Novel inhibitors of Mycobacterium tuberculosis dTDP-6-deoxy-L-lyxo-4-hexulose reductase (RmlD) identified by virtual screening.

The complex and highly impermeable cell wall of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) is largely responsible for the ability of the mycobacterium to resist the action of chemical therapeutics. An L-rhamnosyl residue, which occupies an important anchoring position in the Mtb cell wall, is an attractive target for novel anti-tuberculosis drugs. In this work, we report a virtual screening (VS) study targeting Mtb dTDP-deoxy-L-lyxo-4-hexulose reductase (RmlD), the last enzyme in the L-rhamnosyl synthesis pathway. Through two rounds of VS, we have identified four RmlD inhibitors with half inhibitory concentrations of 0.9-25 μM, and whole-cell minimum inhibitory concentrations of 20-200 μg/ml. Compared with our previous high throughput screening targeting another enzyme involved in L-rhamnosyl synthesis, virtual screening produced higher hit rates, supporting the use of computational methods in future anti-tuberculosis drug discovery efforts.

Defects in flagellin glycosylation affect the virulence of Pseudomonas syringae pv. tabaci 6605

Flagellar motility and its glycosylation are indispensable for the virulence of Pseudomonas syringae pv. tabaci 6605. Six serine residues of the flagellin protein at positions 143, 164, 176, 183, 193 and 201 are glycosylated, and the glycan structure at 201 was determined to consist of a trisaccharide of two L-rhamnosyl residues and a modified 4-amino-4,6-dideoxyglucosyl (viosamine) residue. To investigate the glycan structures attached to the other serine residues and to identify the glycans important for virulence, Ser/Ala-substituted mutants were generated. Six mutant strains that each retained a single glycosylated serine residue were generated by replacing five of the six serine residues with alanine residues. MALDI-TOF mass analysis of flagellin proteins revealed that the major component of each glycan was a trisaccharide basically similar to that at position 201, but with heterogeneity in glycoform distribution. Swarming motility and amounts of acylhomoserine lactones (AHLs) as quorum-sensing signal molecules were significantly reduced, especially in the S143-5S/A, S164-5S/A and S201-5S/A mutants, whereas tolerance to antibiotics was increased in these three mutants. All the mutants showed lower ability to cause disease on host tobacco plants. These results supported our previous finding that glycosylation of the most externally located sites on the surface of the flagellin molecule, such as S176 and S183, is required for virulence in P. syringae pv. tabaci 6605. Furthermore, it is speculated that flagellum-dependent motility might be correlated with quorum sensing and antibiotic resistance.

Molecular origin for rheological characteristics of native gellan gum

The 1H-nuclear magnetic resonance spectrum showed that the l-rhamnosyl residues of native gellan gum were coinvolved in both a small number of 4C1-pyranose conformations and a large number of 1C4-pyranose conformations, whereas for deacylated polymer, almost of the residues were involved in 4C1-pyranose conformation. The flow curves of native gellan gum showed plastic behavior above 0.2%. The elastic modulus stayed at a constant value with increase in temperature up to 40 °C, then decreased rapidly. The elastic modulus increased with addition of CaCl2 (6.8 mM) and stayed constant value with increase in temperature up to 65 °C, then decreased rapidly. The stronger elastic modulus was observed in deacylated gellan gum with addition of CaCl2. The elastic modulus of native gellan gum showed larger value than that in aqueous solution in the presence of urea (4.0 M). Intra- and intermolecular associations of native gellan gum molecules in the presence of Ca+2 were proposed.

Occurrence of the primary cell wall polysaccharide rhamnogalacturonan II in pteridophytes, lycophytes, and bryophytes. Implications for the evolution of vascular plants.

Borate ester cross-linking of the cell wall pectic polysaccharide rhamnogalacturonan II (RG-II) is required for the growth and development of angiosperms and gymnosperms. Here, we report that the amounts of borate cross-linked RG-II present in the sporophyte primary walls of members of the most primitive extant vascular plant groups (Lycopsida, Filicopsida, Equisetopsida, and Psilopsida) are comparable with the amounts of RG-II in the primary walls of angiosperms. By contrast, the gametophyte generation of members of the avascular bryophytes (Bryopsida, Hepaticopsida, and Anthocerotopsida) have primary walls that contain small amounts (approximately 1% of the amounts of RG-II present in angiosperm walls) of an RG-II-like polysaccharide. The glycosyl sequence of RG-II is conserved in vascular plants, but these RG-IIs are not identical because the non-reducing L-rhamnosyl residue present on the aceric acid-containing side chain of RG-II of all previously studied plants is replaced by a 3-O-methyl rhamnosyl residue in the RG-IIs isolated from Lycopodium tristachyum, Ceratopteris thalictroides, Platycerium bifurcatum, and Psilotum nudum. Our data indicate that the amount of RG-II incorporated into the walls of plants increased during the evolution of vascular plants from their bryophyte-like ancestors. Thus, the acquisition of a boron-dependent growth habit may be correlated with the ability of vascular plants to maintain upright growth and to form lignified secondary walls. The conserved structures of pteridophyte, lycophyte, and angiosperm RG-IIs suggests that the genes and proteins responsible for the biosynthesis of this polysaccharide appeared early in land plant evolution and that RG-II has a fundamental role in wall structure.

Structural features of the pectic polysaccharides isolated from retted hemp bast fibres

Pectic polysaccharides were solubilized from retted hemp bast fibre bundles, by sequential extraction with water and ammonium oxalate at 100 °C. The polysaccharides isolated from the extracts were de-esterified and fractionated by anion exchange chromatography, yielding five fractions from boiling water extract and five fractions from oxalate extract. Five of these fractions were characterized by chemicals methods, 1H and 13C NMR, as polysaccharides containing galacturonic acid, rhamnose and galactose units in variable ratios. Their chemical structure comprises a disaccharide repeating unit → 2)- α-l-Rha p-(1 → 4)- α-Gal pA-(1 → backbone, with short side chains attached to the rhamnosyl residues. The β- d-Galactose residues are attached to O-4 of the rhamnosyl residues, but the amount of l-rhamnosyl residues that are 2,4-linked can vary from 36 to 75%, from one fraction to another. A fraction corresponding to a mixture of oligosaccharides with an average dp of 13, with ten galacturonic acid, two rhamnose and one galactose units was also isolated.

Rheological Properties of Welan Gum in Aqueous Media

The flow behavior and dynamic viscoelasticity of welan gum solutions were measured with a rheogoniometer. The welan gum showed shear-thinning behavior at a concentration of 0.1%, but plastic behavior above 0.3% at 25°C. The dynamic viscoelasticity increased with increasing concentration, and was scarcely changeable with increasing temperature even at 80°C. Gelation did not occur even in a polysaccharide concentration of 1.0% at low temperature (0°C). An increase of the dynamic modulus was not observed on the addition of CaCl2 (6.8 mm). The dynamic viscoelasticity of welan gum solution was scarcely changeable in a wide range of pH from 2 to 12. The dynamic modulus was also scarcely changeable on addition of urea (4.0 m). Possible mode of intramolecular associations between the OH-4 of the d-glucosyl residue and the adjacent hemiacetal oxygen atom of the l-rhamnosyl residue, and between the methyl group of the l-rhamnosyl residue and the adjacent hemiacetal oxygen atom of the d-glucosyl residue were proposed.

Treatment of rhamnogalacturonan I with lithium in ethylenediamine

Rhamnogalacturonan I is a pectic polysaccharide that is solubilized from the walls of suspension-cultured sycamore cells ( Acer pseudoplatanus) by the action of a highly purified endo-1,4-α-polygalacturonanase. Rhamnogalacturonan I has a linear backbone consisting of the diglycosyl repeating unit, →4)-α- d-Gal pA-(1→2)-α- l-Rha p-(1→. Approximately half of the α- l-rhamnosyl residues of the backbone are branched at O-4. Selective cleavage at the galactosyluronic acid residues of the backbone by treatment of rhamnogalacturonan I wit lithium in ethylenediamine resulted in the release of the neutral glycosyl-residue sidechains that had been attached to the backbone. Various analytical techniques, including combined liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry, combined gas-liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry, and 1H-nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, were used to determine the structure of the side chains. The majority of the sidechains were isolated as oligoglycosylalditols, with rhamnitol at the “reducing” end. Terminal 2-, 4-, or 6-linked galactosyl residues were found attached to O-4 of the rhamnitol residues The 2-, 4-, and 6-linked galactosyl residues had terminal or 2-linked arabinosyl, or additional galactosyl, residues attached to them. Based on the results of fast-atom-bombardment mass spectrometry, the side chains were found to range in size from one to fourteen glycosyl residues. The side-chain structures suggest that there are four or more distinct families of side chains attached to the backbone of rhamnogalacturonan I.

Lysogenic conversion of Salmonella typhimurium bacteriophages A3 and A4 consists of O-acetylation of rhamnose of the repeating unit of the O-antigenic polysaccharide chain.

Lysogenization of Salmonella typhimurium with either of the bacteriophages A3 and A4 results in O-acetylation of the L-rhamnose residues of the O-polysaccharide chain of the lipopolysaccharide of the bacterial cell envelope. The O-acetyl group is found on both O-2 and O-3 of the L-rhamnosyl residues. This lysogenic conversion prevents the adsorption of the A3 and A4 phages and also greatly reduces the rate of adsorption of phage P22 to the O-polysaccharide chain as measured by binding studies with whole bacteria. Isolated lipopolysaccharide from A3- and A4-lysogenized bacteria was also inefficient in inactivating these phages: the concentration required for 50% inactivation was 10,000-fold higher than that for lipopolysaccharide from S. typhimurium not lysogenized by any A phage. Binding of phages A3 and A4 is accompanied by hydrolysis of the alpha-1,3 linkage between rhamnose and galactose in the tetrasaccharide repeating unit of the O-polysaccharide. Phage hydrolysis generates saccharides of various lengths, the majority being dodecasaccharides, i.e., equivalent to three repeating units. It is surmised that O-acetylation of the rhamnosyl residue interferes with phage A3, A4, and P22 infection by preventing binding to and hydrolysis of the O-polysaccharide chain, the initial step in the phage infection cycle. The new O-acetyl-rhamnose entities did not elicit specific antibodies in rabbits in accordance with earlier experiences. The O-acetylation of O-2 and O-3 of rhamnose is a new, hitherto unknown, modification of the O-polysaccharide chain of S. typhimurium.

Enzymatic degradation and β-elimination of the pectic substances in cherry fruits

Pectic substances from cherry fruits ( Prunus avium) were studied after extraction and purification. They were subjected to β-elimination by heat treatment and depolymerized by endopolygalacturonase from Aspergillus niger. The degraded pectins were fractionated by gel permeation chromatography (Sephadex G-100, Bio-gel P2). The results suggest that the pectic substances largely consist of an α- d-galacturonic backbone interspersed with occasional l-rhamnosyl residues. Neutral sugars as side-chains of varying lengths appear to be concentrated along certain regions of the polymer (‘hairy ) ̊ in contrast to side-chain free (§mooth’) parts.

Structure of Plant Cell Walls

Seven differently linked glycosyl residues have been found to be glycosidically linked to O-4 of the branched 2,4-linked l-rhamnosyl residues contained in the rhamnosyl and galacturonosyl backbone of the cell wall pectic polysaccharide rhamnogalacturonan I. These seven glycosyl residues are, therefore, the first residues of at least seven different side chains attached to the rhamnogalacturonan backbone. These first side chain glycosyl residues are 5-linked l-arabinofuranosyl and terminal 3-, 4-, 6-, 2,6-, and 3,6-linked d-galactopyranosyl residues. The existence of at least seven different side chains in rhamnogalacturonan I indicates that rhamnogalacturonan I is either an exceedingly complex polysaccharide or that rhamnogalacturonan I is a family of polysaccharides with similar or identical rhamnogalacturonan backbones substituted with different side chains.

Use of Lectins to Characterize the Receptor Sites for Bacteriophage PL-1 of Lactobacillus casei

SUMMARY: The polysaccharide (PS) located outside the peptidoglycan layer in Lactobacillus casei ATCC 27092 was found to inhibit the adsorption of PL-1 phage to cell wall preparations without inactivating free phage. Electron microscopic examination of adsorption mixtures showed that the phage were adsorbed to fragments of PS material in a tail-first orientation. Phage did not adsorb to isolated peptidoglycan. The PS was composed of l-rhamnose, d-glucose, d-glucosamine and d-galactosamine, with the hexosamines possibly in N-acetylated form. Prior treatment of L. casei with Streptomyces haemagglutinin, an anti-human blood group B agglutinin that binds specifically to l-rhamnose, resulted in a concentration-dependent inhibition of phage adsorption. Phage adsorption was inhibited partially by lectins specific for d-glucose and N-acetyl-d-glucosamine, but not by lectins specific for N-acetyl-d-glucosamine or N-acetyl-d-galactosamine. The inhibition of phage adsorption occurred immediately upon the addition of the effective lectins, and was reversed by the addition of the respective lectin inhibitors, α-phenyl galactoside or α-methyl glucoside. The results indicate that l-rhamnosyl residues are the main determinants of the PL-1 phage receptor sites, while d-glucosyl residues may be involved more indirectly.

Conformations and interactions of pectins: II. Influence of residue sequence on chain association in calcium pectate gels

In the accompanying paper (Morris et al., 1982) we present evidence of Ca 2+-induced association of poly- d-galacturonate sequences from pectin into dimers of 2 1 chain symmetry, with co-operative (“egg-box”) binding of Ca 2+ on specific sites along the interior faces of each chain. We now investigate the role in calcium pectate gel networks of other structural features, in particular methyl esterification and 1,2-linked l-rhamnosyl residues in the polymer backbone. Acid hydrolysis of citrus, apple and sunflower pectins gave polygalacturonate blocks with a relatively narrow molecular weight distribution, and average chainlength of ~25 residues in each case. Since the known relative stabilities of glycosidic linkages would lead to chain cleavage predominantly at l-rhamnose, this result indicates that the length of polygalacturonate sequences between rhamnose interruptions is approximately constant within and between the pectins studied. Calcium pectate gel strength is reduced dramatically by the incorporation of these chain segments when they are de-esterified, but not when they are esterified. This interference with the development of a network structure that resists applied stress, provides further support for our model of junction zone formation from sequences of contiguous deesterified residues, with Ca 2+-mediated chain dimers providing the primary associations that can offer resistance to deformation. Samples with different levels and patterns of esterification were prepared by enzymic (blockwise) and chemical (random) de-esterification of almost fully methyl esterified pectin. In the former series, the extent of Ca 2+ binding (as monitored by circular dichroism) increased almost linearly with the fraction of free carboxyl groups, whereas the latter showed a non-linear relationship of a form consistent with the requirement of this binding for blocks of contiguous non-esterified residues and, in the presence of excess univalent cations, binding was negligible when more than ~40% of the carboxyl groups were esterified. Statistical calculations of sequence length distribution at different degrees of random de-esterification show the best fit with experimental data when binding is assumed to require sequences with seven or more consecutive free carboxyl groups along the participating face of the chain. For 2 1 chain symmetry, this corresponds to a sequence length of 14 residues, in excellent agreement with previous independent studies of Ca 2+ binding to oligogalacturonates. In the absence of competing univalent counterions, circular dichroism changes are similar in form but so large in magnitude that site-binding of Ca 2+ must now go beyond the half-stoichiometry at which it is arrested in their presence. Ca 2+ binding monitored by circular dichroism, and gel strength (yield stress) measured mechanically, both show a similar dependence on the pattern as well as the level of esterification, as expected for network formation by co-operative binding of Ca 2+ within interchain junction zones. To fit this binding data quantitatively, it is necessary to postulate a two-stage process. (1) Initial dimerization, probably corresponding to the “strong associations” indicated by evidence from competitive inhibition (see above), for which a critical minimum sequence of seven residues is again required but esterified residues can now be accommodated within individual sites provided that they are paired with a free carboxylate on the complementary chain. (2) Subsequent Ca 2+-induced aggregation of these preformed dimers, which can occur irrespective of the pattern of esterification on the external faces; the evidence from mechanical measurements shows that these contribute little to gel strength at high stress.

An acidic polysaccharide isolated from the midrib of leaves of Nicotiana tabacum.

An acidic polysaccharide (APS-H) purified from the hemicellulosic fraction of the midrib of Nicotiana tabacum was composed of d-galacturonic acid, l-rhamnose, l-arabinose and d-galactose in a molar ratio of 31.8: 15.4: 9.9: 42.9. Its molecular weight was estimated to be 90,000 by gel filtration chromatography. APS-H had a pectin-like structure in which the rhamnogalacturonan backbone was composed of (1 → 2)-linked l-rhamnopyranosyl and (1 → 4)-linked d-galacturonosyl residues in a ratio of approximately 1: 2.1. It also contained (1 → 4)-linked d-galactan and (1 → 5)-linked l-arabinofuranosyl moieties as the side chains. Branch points occurred mainly at C-4 of (1 → 2)-linked l-rhamnosyl residues in the backbone and at C-6 of (1 → 4)-linked d-galactosyl residues in the side chains.

Structure of Plant Cell Walls

The purification and characterization of a pectic polymer, rhamnogalacturonan I, present in the primary cell walls of dicots is described. Rhamnogalacturonan I accounts for approximately 7% of the mass of the walls isolated from suspension-cultured sycamore cells. As purified, rhamnogalacturonan I has a molecular weight of approximately 200,000 and is composed primarily of l-rhamnosyl, d-galacturonosyl, l-arabinosyl, and d-galactosyl residues. The backbone of rhamnogalacturonan I is thought to be composed predominantly of d-galacturonosyl and l-rhamnosyl residues in a ratio of approximately 2:1. About half of the l-rhamnosyl residues are 2-linked and are glycosidically attached to C(4) of a d-galacturonosyl residue. The other half of the l-rhamnosyl residues are 2,4-linked and have a d-galacturonosyl residue glycosidically attached at C(2). Sidechains averaging 6 residues in length are attached to C(4) of the l-rhamnosyl residues. There are many different sidechains, containing variously linked l-arabinosyl, and/or d-galactosyl residues.

Preparation of oligosaccharides by bacteriophage degradation of polysaccharides from Klebsiella serotypes K21 and K32

Depolymerization of bacterial, capsular polysaccharides by phage enzymes is a convenient method of preparing oligosaccharides that correspond to one, or several, repeating unit(s). Thus, the capsular polysaccharide from Klebsiella K21 yields a linear pentasaccharide, and that from Klebsiella K32, a linear tetrasaccharide. Both oligosaccharides contain acetal substituents, but, whereas the 4,6- O-(1-carboxyethylidene)- D-galactosyl residue in the K21 structure is relatively acid-stable, the corresponding 3,4- O-(1-carboxyethylidene)- l-rhamnosyl residue in K32 is extremely acid-labile. Phage degradation may, therefore, be the only way by which an oligosaccharide corresponding to an intact repeating-unit may be obtained in such circumstances.

Salmonella Phage Glycanases: Substrate Specificity of the Phage P22 Endo-rhamnosidase

Interaction between phage P22 and phenol-water extracted lipopolysaccharides from sensitive Salmonella bacteria belonging to serogroups A, B and Di results in hydrolysis of the alpha-L-rhamnosyl linkages within the tetrasaccharide repeating unit of the O-antigenic polysaccharide chain. These O-antigens have identical structures except for the nature of the 3,6-dideoxy-hexosyl group linked to O-3 of the D-mannosyl residue. Removal of the dideoxysugar, or periodate oxidation followed by borohydride reduction of the L-rhamnosyl residue made the O chain resistant to the endo-rhamnosidase. Substitution of the D-galactosyl residue at O-4, but not at O-6, with an alpha-D-glucosyl group was compatible with hydrolysis. A number of Klebsiella pneumoniae and Shigella flexneri lipo- or capsular polysaccharides containing chain L-rhamnosyl residues were tested but none was sensitive to the P22 endo-rhamnosidase. The substrate specificity of the endo-rhamnosidase parallels the lytic specificity of the phage which suggests that the initial step in phage P22 infection is a P22 tail enzyme O-antigen substrate interaction. The main product of the hydrolysate was octa-, dodeca- and hexadecasaccharides. Treatment of phage FO resistant smooth strains of S. typhimurium with P22 tails removed O polysaccharide chains and made previously 'hidden' FO receptors accessible to the phage.