Kyoto Protocol Targets Research Articles

Testing the load capacity curve hypothesis with green innovation, green tax, green energy, and technological diffusion: A novel approach to Kyoto protocol

AbstractEnvironmental degradation, which is seen as the most critical obstacle to sustainable development, is addressed by SDGs 7, 11, and 13. The Kyoto Protocol is the first international agreement to solve the problem of environmental degradation. The purpose of this research is to examine the role of Annex II nations in promoting environmental sustainability, particularly those that have adopted environmental obligations under the Kyoto Protocol. The study tests the load capacity curve hypothesis for Annex II countries during the 1994–2018 period. To begin with, we applied some priori tests to panel data analysis and utilized appropriate analysis methods based on the results. Unit root, cointegration, and long‐run estimators were employed. The findings confirmed a long‐run relationship for the load capacity curve model. In the end, two different estimators, namely cross‐sectional ARDL and augmented mean group estimator, were used to test the validity of the load capacity curve hypothesis. The study found that while the hypothesis did not hold true for all Annex II countries, it was only valid for Finland. This research suggests that Annex II countries are not adequately contributing to the achievement of the Kyoto Protocol targets.

Lurking in the Shadows: The Impact of Emissions Target Setting on Carbon Pricing and Environmental Efficiency

Lurking in the Shadows: The Impact of Emissions Target Setting on Carbon Pricing and Environmental Efficiency

Electric vehicle market penetration impact on transport-energy-greenhouse gas emissions nexus: A case study of United Arab Emirates

Electric vehicle market penetration impact on transport-energy-greenhouse gas emissions nexus: A case study of United Arab Emirates

Market Instruments for a Sustainable Economy: Environmental Fiscal Policy and Manifest Divergences

AbstractThe introduction of environmental taxation policies had reached most European countries by the late 1990s. The pricing of activities considered harmful to the environment has given rise to the design of various economic instruments, such as environmental taxes, aimed at promoting environmental responsibility and at enabling the Kyoto Protocol targets to be met, and at the same time generating a marked increase in tax revenues. The aim of this article is to examine whether convergence in environmental taxation has taken place among 27 EU countries, doing so by analyzing time series and applying unit root tests. Our findings show there has been no such convergence, overall, despite the existence of groups of countries with common patterns of behavior.

PROPOSED MODEL FOR THE USE OF CLEAN DEVELOPMENT MECHANISM TO ATTRACT FOREIGN DIRECT INVESTMENT TO EGYPT

The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) is the Kyoto Protocol mechanism. The Mechanism has two main objectives; to assist Annex I Parties to cost-effectively fulfil part of their emission reduction targets under the Kyoto Protocol, and to help non-Annex I Parties in achieving sustainable development. When the CDM entered into force on 16 February 2005, its implemented projects, in non-Annex 1 developing countries, created certified emission reductions (CERs). So the project participants can sell to Annex I Parties to help them meet their Kyoto Protocol targets, they can also provide complementary benefits to non-Annex I Parties such as new investment, climate friendly technology transfer and know-how, skills development, employment..etc Based on the literature review, none of the studies assessed the clean development mechanism from the point of comparative benchmarking anaylsis between several countries. Most of the studies focused solely on the carbon climate and its economics away from the overall country business climate, competition and investment policies. Attrating foreign direct investments , even for environmental purposes , is an economic activity and there is a need to assess and test how to integrate the promotional activities for environmental projects into the country investment promotion strategy. This study was conducted in order to propose a model and action plan to benefit from the clean development mechanism in order to attract foreign direct investment to Egypt. To be able to gather the necessary data, the researcher utilized descriptive method using both qualitative and quantitative approaches. Herein the chosen responded governmental officials were selected from the assigned Egyptian ministries responsible for investment and environmental affairs. Structured interviews was the research method used for data gathering to evaluate the challenges that facing the inclusion of clean development mechanism within Egypt’s investment opportunities, and to reach out the potential sector and targeted foreign countries to invest in Egypt’s CDM projects. The compiled values and statistical analysis utilized the official data released from the UNFCCC secretariat along with the official investment data of Egyptian General Authority for Investments and Free Zones and the official reports of related global indicators. The results of the study may help the decesion maker to integrate more the environmental projects into the investment policies. Despite the uncertainity that might shape the future of CDM, the researcher would like to stress on the need to capitalize on CDM benfits and to learn from the other peer developing countries experience. The proposed model may be used as a catalyst towards more integration of the CDM framework into the country investment climate and doing business activities.

Iranian Energy and Climate Policies Adaptation to the Kyoto Protocol

The aim of this paper is to assess the adaptation of Iran’s energy policies to the Kyoto Protocol. In the past two decades, Iran has experienced a considerable increase in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions; in 2013 it was the world’s ninth largest emitter. Although adapting to this protocol in Iran’s energy and climate policies seems vital and urgent, its recent status is not promising. This paper develops a model to critically assess Iran’s energy policy performance during the last 15 years after the Protocol. In this regard, a composite index is defined as a proxy of adaptation to the Kyoto Protocol targets. The proposed index is based on several indicators such as energy intensity, energy consumption growth rate, energy consumption per capita, amount of CO2 emissions, and share of the renewable energies in total primary energy supply. The indicators have been selected by expert judgment. The assessment of this composite index for 16 selected countries is discussed. The results indicate that Iran has the lowest adaptation to the Kyoto Protocol among the selected countries. Also, energy intensity and CO2 emission indicators are the most important factors in realizing the adaptation to the Kyoto Protocol targets.

The complex issues of carbon sink: a critical overview

The aim of the paper is to offer a systemic overview about some critical and interdependent relations among carbon offset, carbon sequestration and carbon stock. Rooting in the complexity perspective, the work discusses some relevant measurement methods and financial issues related to the land use - land use change forestry (LULUCF) applied under Kyoto Protocol rules. There are uncertainties on the estimation on carbon flux owing to the application of various models of estimates. The study also focuses on the credits of forestry projects, which can be sold or purchased on the carbon market. In conclusion, the work sheds light on the complex side of decision processes in framing and selecting models to estimate the carbon balance under the Kyoto Protocol target. The opportunity for investment in forest projects depends on the cost management of the projects themselves, and the price between wood market and unit carbon.

The blending of discourses in Sweden’s “urge to go ahead” in climate politics

This paper investigates what made possible Sweden’s “urge to go ahead” in climate policy, an issue particularly interesting given the problem with non-compliance in the climate regime. The material reveals that there was tension regarding how great burden Sweden should shoulder and to what extent emissions reductions should be made domestically. Despite this tension, Sweden decided to have a more ambitious national target (−4 %) than required by the EU burden sharing agreement (+4 %), which allocated the EU’s Kyoto Protocol targets within EU-15. It was also decided that emissions reductions should not account for the flexible mechanisms or carbon sinks. Importantly, the national −4 % target was over-implemented (−16 % in 1990–2011). These decisions were institutionalized until the center-right government in 2009 formulated the 2020 targets. Using argumentative discourse analysis, I conclude that what made possible Sweden’s comparatively ambitious climate policy was the discourse coalitions (although different in character) formed around primarily two story lines that were blended: Opportunity (in line with the discourse on ecological modernization) and Ecological Justice (in line with the discourse on civic environmentalism). However, the latter was de-emphasized by the center-right government that came to power in 2006, reflecting the influence of a Sacrifice story line and the increased importance of the norm of cost-efficiency. Convincing others about the truthfulness of the Opportunity story line would possibly be effective for making others willing to commit to obligations and actually implement them. However, the diminishing importance of the Ecological Justice story line may affect negatively how Sweden is viewed internationally. If the overarching aim is to get as many countries as possible to commit to and comply with quantitative commitments within the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, then it might not only be of importance whether Sweden can “deliver” but possibly also how one delivers.

The role bonds in financing climate resilient economy

Climate bonds are a new category of climate-related financial products in environmental finance. The validity of the emergence of climate bond market seems reasonable to attract private capital to finance climate-resilient economy and to make the recognition of green investment easier for potential investors. Investments in low-carbon assets and technology to meet the Kyoto Protocol targets or investments to adopt to extreme weather conditions are just examples of sources of the capital needed. Developing the potential of green bond market has not been fully exploited so far. In the future, the most important determinants to stimulate the growth of the market will be green standardizations that are currently under construction. Positive outlook also results from existence of institutional investors represents tens of trillion USD and intends to incorporate climate change into investment strategies. Not without significance is the fact that green sukuk will enlarge the spectrum of climate-related financial products.

Domestic Offsets in Practice: Modalities and Implications

Greenhouse gas (GHG) reduction projects implemented at European Union Member States in non-Emissions Trading Scheme (ETS) sectors are referred to as domestic offset (DO) projects. The aim of this article is the presentation of DO projects implementation modalities, their interactions with subsidy programs and the analysis of impacts on their financial profile. This article argues that although DOs would not bring EU Member States closer to their Kyoto Protocol targets, they could enhance the roll-out of new low-carbon technologies which would result in extra energy and GHG reduction gains on top of the carbon credits that link DOs to the EU ETS.

Federalism and the Climate

Canada and the European Union are among the io largest emitters of greenhouse gas emissions, accounting for two and 14 percent respectively of global carbon dioxide emissions. Both have large environmental communities and strong environmental regulatory capacities, and both are parties to most major multilateral environmental agreements. The European Union pushed strongly for the ratification of the Kyoto protocol after the United States pulled out of the agreement in 2001, threatening the future of the regime. Canada, which had been one of the first countries to sign the Kyoto protocol, joined the EU in ratifying it in 2002.Despite these similarities, Canada and the EU in recent years have had very different experiences with climate policy implementation and have taken substantially different positions towards the establishment of postKyoto climate reduction goals. Canada committed to reducing its greenhouse gas emissions by six percent of 1990 levels by 2012. The EU-15 (that is, the 15 members of the European Community at the time the Kyoto protocol was formulated) committed to an eight-percent reduction over the same time frame.The EU-15 are well on track to meeting their Kyoto protocol target and could even surpass it. At the end of 2008, greenhouse gas emissions in the EU-15 were 6.9 percent below 1990 base year emissions. The remaining cuts that need to be made can be achieved through a combination of planned domestic mitigation measures and reliance on the Kyoto flexibility mechanisms (emissions trading, joint implementation, and the clean development mechanism).Future EU emission targets are based on the EU-27 membership. In late 2007, the EU set a target to reduce EU-27 greenhouse gas emissions by 20 percent of 1990 levels by 2020, independent of other country actions in the international climate negotiations. The EU has stated it will move to a 30-percent reduction target if other countries take comparable action. The EU-27 are also making progress on their 20-percent reduction goal. Emissions in 2008 were 11.3 percent below 1990 levels.1In contrast, Canada is far from meeting its Kyoto emissions reduction target and has set a weak goal for 2020. Canadian emissions were 24.1 percent higher at the end of 2008 than in 1990, or 31.5 percent above the Canadian Kyoto target. To put this into perspective, US emissions were 14 percent higher in 2008 than in 1990.2 Canadian emissions have been growing faster than those of any other G8 country. At the Copenhagen climate conference in December 2009, Canada set a new climate target: a 17-percent reduction in greenhouse gas emissions by 2020, relative to 2005 emission levels.3 The World Resources Institute calculated that this is equivalent to a three-percent increase in emissions over 1990 levels, or a 19-percent increase when land use, land use change, and forestry measures are included in the calculation.4The Conservative minority government that has been in power since 2006 has questioned the Kyoto protocol's fairness, Canada's ability to meet its target, and the economic impact that mitigation efforts required by Kyoto would have on the economy.5 In November 2009, in the run-up to the Copenhagen climate convention, the Canadian senate defeated a bill introduced by the opposition that called for cuts in greenhouse gas emissions by 25 percent of 1990 levels.6What explains the differences in Canadian and European approaches to climate change and are the differences really as large as these figures suggest? Clearly, at the aggregate level, the EU has outperformed Canada. Yet when the performance of Canadian provinces and EU member-states is considered, the picture is more nuanced. Both within Canada and the EU there are substantial differences among provinces/member-states in their greenhouse gas performance and support for strong climate policies. This article compares the opportunities and constraints that federalism places on Canada and the EU in terms of their climate policymaking. …

Future prospects for ethanol fuel use - a review

Countries inspired by a desire to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in order to meet their Kyoto Protocol targets, have turned to ethanol fuels as a cheap and proven alternative to reduce vehicular emissions. Political instability in the Middle East has further motivated countries to develop their own fuel supply to ensure the security of supply and promote internal economic growth. The use of fuel ethanol has attracted considerable negative press and public comments in the early part of 2000s. Because of the importance of ethanol fuel as alternative to petrol, this review presents discussions outlining the various benefits and costs of using fuel ethanol with the objective of highlighting the future prospects of its use to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, provide cheap energy source for vehicles and also provide income to farmers producing bio-ethanol. Key words: ethanol fuel, future prospects, conflicting needs

Testing the ‘Party Matters' Thesis: Explaining Progress Towards Kyoto Protocol Targets

There is growing interest in whether and how parties matter. We add to this discussion by exploring the ways in which parties matter for policy outcomes. To do this, we look at the European Union (EU) member states' progress towards the greenhouse gas emissions targets set for them by the Kyoto Protocol and the EU's Burden Sharing Agreement. We find that governments that are more pro-environment and less ideologically divided make better progress towards their targets. We also demonstrate that green party representation in government predicts convergence. This article contributes to research examining the ways in which parties matter as well as the growing literature on coalition politics and veto players.

Trends and future issues of environmental management in Japan

Japanese legislation on managing environmental issues has been developing since approximately 1990, and is today founded upon the Basic Environmental Law of 1993. Since then, the main aim of Japanese institutions has been to establish ‘a recycling-based society’ and develop measures to counter global warming. Various business groups and companies have now recognised environmental management as a social responsibility and have moved towards appropriate measures, such as waste reduction and better resource utilisation. At the same time, the environmental awareness and commitment of consumers has also risen. However, there remains much unease about the feasibility of Japan achieving its Kyoto Protocol target, and about its emissions of greenhouse gases after 2013. The Japan Business Federation has expressed opposition to environmental taxation and recommends a ‘sector-specific accumulation system’ for emission regulations. Concerns remain about whether this would be a solution or a problem, and Japanese consumers face a dilemma as to how to apply their growing environmental awareness. A sense of leadership is necessary to recruit relevant organisations and national consensus towards a change in socio-economic structure that will motivate government, corporate and public interests towards a common environmental goal.

Introduction to Special Topic: Energy Pathways to a Low-Carbon Society

Energy and carbon are at the nexus of climate change, environment, health, and socio-economic development. The imperative to move towards cleaner and renewable energy to reduce greenhouse gas is gaining significant public and private sector support. Reducing carbon in the atmosphere has fast emerged as a major means to achieve this, since carbon content can be measured and hence the pathways can be well-defined. The December 2009 Copenhagen Accord recognized “the scientific view that the increase in global temperature should be below 2 degrees Celsius on the basis of equity and in the context of sustainable development.” To achieve this goal, the emerging scenario (e.g., the International Energy Agency (IEA) Report: World Energy Outlook 2009) is that the atmospheric concentration of CO2 be stabilized at around 450 ppm. If global emissions peak in 2015, we estimate that annual reductions in CO2 concentration of up to 5% would be necessary, equivalent to the Kyoto Protocol targets. Delaying reductions beyond the 2015 peak, however, would necessitate more drastic reduction rates that would be very difficult to achieve. To reach the necessary annual reduction in either case, investment in nonfossil energy must be significantly increased.

Carbon respiration from subsurface peat accelerated by climate warming in the subarctic

Climate-warming-induced acceleration of CO2 emissions through enhanced respiration of centuries-to-millennia-old peat deposits may form a strong positive feedback to our climate. But the long-term temperature sensitivity of carbon in peatlands, especially at depth, remains uncertain. Now an experiment involving long-term (8 years plus) artificial warming of subarctic peatland shows that warming by about 1 °C stimulated ecosystem respiration rates by more than 50%, the bulk of the increase deriving from long-term, recalcitrant carbon towards the bottom of the active layer above the permafrost. The findings suggest that climate warming accelerates the respiration of subsurface carbon reservoirs in peatlands to a much larger extent than was previously thought, potentially offsetting much of the Kyoto Protocol targets for greenhouse-gas emission reductions for the whole European Union. The feedback between the terrestrial carbon cycle and climate is one of the largest uncertainties in current projections of future climate, with the long-term sensitivity of carbon in peatlands remaining unclear. The combination of non-disturbing in situ measurements of carbon dioxide respiration rates and isotopic composition of respired CO2 in subarctic peatland experiments now shows that warming accelerates respiration rates of these subsurface carbon reservoirs to a much larger extent than was previously thought. Among the largest uncertainties in current projections of future climate is the feedback between the terrestrial carbon cycle and climate1. Northern peatlands contain one-third of the world’s soil organic carbon, equivalent to more than half the amount of carbon in the atmosphere2. Climate-warming-induced acceleration of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions through enhanced respiration of thick peat deposits, centuries to millennia old, may form a strong positive carbon cycle–climate feedback. The long-term temperature sensitivity of carbon in peatlands, especially at depth, remains uncertain, however, because of the short duration or correlative nature of field studies3,4,5 and the disturbance associated with respiration measurements below the surface in situ or during laboratory incubations6,7. Here we combine non-disturbing in situ measurements of CO2 respiration rates and isotopic (13C) composition of respired CO2 in two whole-ecosystem climate-manipulation experiments in a subarctic peatland. We show that approximately 1 °C warming accelerated total ecosystem respiration rates on average by 60% in spring and by 52% in summer and that this effect was sustained for at least eight years. While warming stimulated both short-term (plant-related) and longer-term (peat soil-related) carbon respiration processes, we find that at least 69% of the increase in respiration rate originated from carbon in peat towards the bottom (25–50 cm) of the active layer above the permafrost. Climate warming therefore accelerates respiration of the extensive, subsurface carbon reservoirs in peatlands to a much larger extent than was previously thought6,7. Assuming that our data from a single site are indicative of the direct response to warming of northern peatland soils on a global scale, we estimate that climate warming of about 1 °C over the next few decades could induce a global increase in heterotrophic respiration of 38–100 megatonnes of C per year. Our findings suggest a large, long-lasting, positive feedback of carbon stored in northern peatlands to the global climate system.

European Climate Policy: Toward Centralized Governance?

AbstractThe EU emissions trading system (ETS) is the first large‐scale international emissions trading system and a “cornerstone” in EU climate policy. A key element in the ETS implementation process is deciding upon the ceiling (“cap”) for the emissions included in the ETS. Over time, a significant change and centralization of this model has taken place. In order to understand this development, we need to acknowledge the increasing acceptance of stronger centralized governance among the member states due to ETS pilot phase problems; take into consideration frustration in the European Commission over complex and differing National Allocation Plans; and add the fact that the Kyoto Protocol target was getting nearer and a good performance of the “flagship” ETS was becoming increasingly important. Hence, although the case supports the importance of acknowledging the multilevel character of the EU, it still emphasizes the key role of changes in member states' interests and positions for understanding outcomes.

Local Policies for Climate Change in Japan

Local climate change policy making in Japan started in the middle of the 1990s. The national government's Global Warming Law and the Kyoto Protocol Target Achievement Plan both include expectations that the 47 prefectural and 1,800 municipal governments will formulate and implement comprehensive, plan-based programs to address greenhouse gas emissions. This study examines national and local government climate change policies. Most local governments deal with disseminating information and educating citizens about climate change and energy efficiency. The most advanced local governments, such as Tokyo and Kyoto, have used local ordinances to claim competences in energy, traffic, and other policy areas in order to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions. The authors urge that a roadmap similar to the one they produced for Nagoya City to reduce its CO2 emissions by 75% compared to 1990 levels by 2050 be adopted at the national level.

Cost–benefit analysis of using sewage sludge as alternative fuel in a cement plant: a case study

To enforce the implementation of the Kyoto Protocol targets, a number of governmental/international institutions have launched emission trade schemes as an approach to specify CO(2) caps and to regulate the emission trade in recent years. These schemes have been basically applied for large industrial sectors, including energy producers and energy-intensive users. Among them, cement plants are included among the big greenhouse gas (GHG) emitters. The use of waste as secondary fuel in clinker kilns is currently an intensive practice worldwide. However, people living in the vicinity of cement plants, where alternative fuels are being used, are frequently concerned about the potential increase in health risks. In the present study, a cost-benefit analysis was applied after substituting classical fuel for sewage sludge as an alternative fuel in a clinker kiln in Catalonia, Spain. The economical benefits resulting in the reduction of CO(2) emissions were compared with the changes in human health risks due to exposure to polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs) and carcinogenic metals (As, Cd, Co, and Cr) before and after using sewage sludge to generate 20% of the thermal energy needed for pyro-processing. The exposure to PCDD/Fs and metals through air inhalation, soil ingestion and dermal absorption was calculated according to the environmental levels in soil. The carcinogenic risks were assessed, and the associated cost for the population was estimated by considering the DG Environment's recommended value for preventing a statistical fatality (VPF). In turn, the amount of CO(2) emitted was calculated, and the economical saving, according to the market prices, was evaluated. The use of sewage sludge as a substitute of conventional energy meant a probability cancer decrease of 4.60 for metals and a cancer risk increase of 0.04 for PCDD/Fs. Overall, a net reduction of 4.56 cancers for one million people can be estimated. The associated economical evaluation due to the decreasing cancer for 60,000 people, the current population living near the cement plant, would be of 0.56 million euros (US$ 0.83 million). In turn, a reduction of 144,000 tons of CO(2) emitted between 2003 and 2006 was estimated. Considering a cost of 20 euros per ton of CO(2), the global saving would be 2.88 million euros (US$ 4.26 million). After the partial substitution of the fuel, the current environmental exposure to metals and PCDD/Fs would even mean a potential decrease of health risks for the individuals living in the vicinity of the cement plant. The total benefit of using sewage sludge as an alternative fuel was calculated in 3.44 million euros (US$ 5.09 million). Environmental economics is becoming an interesting research field to convert environmental benefits (i.e., reduction of health risks, emission of pollutants, etc.) into economical value. The results show, that while the use of sewage sludge as secondary fuel is beneficial for the reduction in GHG emissions, no additional health risks for the population derived from PCDD/F and metal emissions are estimated. Cost-benefit analysis seems to be a suitable tool to estimate the environmental damage and benefit associated to industrial processes. Therefore, this should become a generalized practice, mainly for those more impacting sectors such as power industries. On the other hand, the extension of the study could vastly be enlarged by taking into account other potentially emitted GHGs, such as CH(4) and N(2)O, as well as other carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic micropollutants.

Potential applications using LNG cold energy in Sicily

According to previsions, natural gas could be the main energy source worldwide, inducing relevant geopolitical changes. Most likely, such problems will be solved with the development of a gas transportation mode alternative to traditional pipelines: liquefied natural gas (LNG). The global LNG trade has increased rapidly during recent years. A significant amount of energy is consumed to produce low-temperature LNG, which has plenty of cryogenic exergy/energy. Therefore, the effective utilization of the cryogenic energy associated with LNG vaporization is very important. Sicily, with more than five million inhabitants, is the second biggest region of Italy and in this region will be realized two of the 11 gasification plants planned in Italy according to the regional energy master-plan. This paper shows some interesting applications for the cold produced in gasification plants, e.g. for seawater desalination and for fresh and frozen food production and conservation. These applications seem very interesting for Sicilian situation and also can contribute to energy saving and greenhouse gases reduction to match Kyoto Protocol targets. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.