Kurdish Migrants Research Articles

Objects are not just a thing – (re)negotiating identity through using material objects within the Kurdish diaspora in the UK

Abstract Material belongings have a significant impact on shaping one’s identity, and they play a crucial role as identity markers and valuable instruments for negotiating distinctions among diverse communities, especially for those who experience migration. This research focuses on a specific group of Iraqi Kurdish migrants living in the UK, exploring how they navigate and mould their cultural identity through their cherished possessions. Utilizing a multimodal approach, data collection involved narrative interviews and visual ethnography methods, such as photo voice. The dataset underwent a systematic thematic analysis following Braun and Clarke’s methodology, leading to an objective and cohesive thematic presentation. The findings underscore the significance of material culture for Iraqi-Kurdish participants in this study. These respondents held deep emotional connections to material objects, linking the landscapes of their past lives to their present experiences in the UK. By cherishing and preserving these possessions, they established a discursive “third space” to express emotions and negotiate their complex “in-between” identities. This term describes a state of dilemma wherein individuals grapple with conflicting senses of identity due to exposure to and affiliation with two distinct cultures. Specifically, it applies to participants who simultaneously value and embrace both their Kurdish culture and identity, as well as their British culture and identity.

Transnational citizenship: political practices of Kurdish migrants’ descendants in France and Germany

ABSTRACT Over the last decades, scholars have increasingly called for the ‘deterritorialization’ of the notion of citizenship. The realities concerning citizenship have changed with new expressions of transnationalism. However, whereas the main body of research has focused on the transnational aspects of citizenship among migrants in the form of their transnational political practices and dual nationalities, their descendants have received far less attention. This paper examines the political practices of Kurdish migrants’ descendants in France and Germany and their narratives of identity and citizenship. We employ migrant descendants’ political activism as an empirical entry point to gain insight into the meanings they attach to citizenship. The paper draws from two qualitative datasets collected in France (2015–2017) and Germany (2015–2023) with individuals of Kurdish background, who were born to migrant families arriving from Turkey in the 1980s and 1990s. The findings show that national contexts – both in grandparents’/parents’ country of departure and the country of arrival – and the transnational, diasporic and even supranational space (EU) shape migrant descendants’ political activism, identity construction and consequently resonate in the meanings they attach to citizenship. This study highlights the need to approach migrants’ descendants as transnational citizens in their own right.

Status Consumption and Negotiation of Tastes: Anchoring on Ethnic Capital

This study examines status consumption and socio-cultural tensions between wealthy Turkish indigenes and newly enriched Kurdish migrants in Şanlıurfa, an underdeveloped city in Turkey. The article focuses on ethnicity, which enables the construction and negotiation of consumer identities and (re)production of distinctions between competing groups under the conditions of marketization. Ethnic capital, a subcategory of social and cultural capital, refers to the dispositions, rituals, and skills of an ethnic group and its members and serves as a source of social power to reproduce group distinctions. The findings contribute to the literature by revealing that, in a context where modernity is not completely entrenched, ethnic capital can explain the scope of competitive status consumption and power struggles. Consumers can still remain attached to their ethnic capital, as they move between different competitive positions in the field of consumption. It has been found that ethnic groups see themselves as having superior qualities—and yet a need to improve—and try to reflect this not by emulating necessarily ‘the’ or ‘an’ other but by emulating lifestyle consumption.

Labour Market Segmentation within Ethnic Economies: The Ethnic Penalty for Invisible Kurdish Migrants in the United Kingdom

Despite the extensive literature on the labour market outcomes of migration, little attention has been given to labour market inequalities within ethnic economies containing internal ethnicity. This article, using a field-study, multi-segmented labour market approach and the enclave hypothesis, contributes to the literature by demonstrating the key roles of different migration patterns and ethnic disparities in shaping labour market segmentation. It focuses on how and why Kurdish migrants are located in the lower segments of the labour market in their shared ethnic (migrant) economy in London. It argues that the Kurds’ underprivileged position associated with an ethnic penalty for them in the UK results from their relatively recent migration history, (un)documented asylum status and the ongoing persecution against them in Turkey. The article concludes that different migration histories, particular motivations for migration and ethnic disparities stratify migrants into distinct segments of the labour market in the country of destination.

Performing in a Space Between Art and Life

Artist Bejhat Omer Abdulla remembers his own story of fleeing Iraqi Kurdistan. Through this personal account, Abdulla demonstrates the challenges of crossing national, ethnic and ideological boundaries. This photographic essay begins by pointing to the complexity of the notion of who is a migrant as an abstract notion within academic and policy conversations about migration. Featuring original art work inspired by his first-hand experience as a migrant, Abdulla's account portrays one migrant's story in great detail, adding nuance and texture to what we know about the experiences of Kurdish migrants to Europe.

Experiencing Homeland: Social Media and Transnational Communication among Kurdish Migrants in Northern Italy

This article examines the ways in which experiences of homeland take shape through the use of social media among first- and second-generation Kurdish migrants living in Milan and surrounding areas in the Lombardy region of Italy. Drawing on a short-term ethnographic study of social media practices carried out in spring and summer 2018, the paper presents and compares the uses of social media among two migrant generations and conceptualizes homeland as a mediated experience that takes shape through people’s everyday social media practices. This approach to homeland can account for the multiple ways in which the affordances of digital platforms and the subjective aspects of homeland are interconnected with one another through social media practices. The paper is part of the Global Perspectives, Media and Communication special issue on “Media, Migration, and Nationalism,” guest-edited by Koen Leurs and Tomohisa Hirata.

Unravelling Histories of Displacement: The Protracted Refugeehood of Syrian Kurds in Istanbul

This paper critically engages with Turkey’s refugee governance by offering insight into the daily struggles, aspirations, and longings of Syrian Kurdish migrants living in the inner-city neighbourhood of Demirkapı, Istanbul. It aims to sketch a multifaceted Kurdish geography of displacements beyond nation-state borders and to show how social differences and hierarchies of class, gender, and ethnicity shape greatly the experiences of the groups living in the neighbourhood. The paper is based on an ethnographic field research that consists of first-hand observations, conversations, and 25 semi-structured in-depth interviews with Kurdish migrants. The emplaced, ethnographic research is particularly promising to understand the daily lives of migrants and their multi-layered history of displacement and migration within and across borders. This history, we underscore, is not a past history, but one that unfolds in the present, within the current social hierarchies and in the midst of the ongoing crises in Syria and Iraq that poignantly shape the feelings, expectations, and memories of the Kurdish people currently living in Demirkapı. Each life trajectory, that we briefly describe, involves a strenuous effort to establish a relatively stable and enriching life under the precarious conditions of ongoing crises and authoritarian neoliberal capitalism.

Substance use, affective symptoms, and suicidal ideation among Russian, Somali, and Kurdish migrants in Finland.

Comorbidity of substance use with affective symptoms and suicidality has been well documented in the general population. However, population-based migrant studies about this association are scarce. We examined the association of affective symptoms and suicidal ideation with binge drinking, daily smoking, and lifetime cannabis use among Russian, Somali, and Kurdish migrants in comparison with the Finnish general population. Cross-sectional data from the Finnish Migrant Health and Wellbeing Study (Maamu, n = 1307) and comparison group data of the general Finnish population (n = 860) from the Health 2011 Survey were used. Substance use included self-reported current binge drinking, daily smoking, and lifetime cannabis use. Affective symptoms and suicidal ideation were measured using the Hopkins Symptom Checklist-25 (HSCL-25). We performed multivariate logistic regression analyses, including age, gender, and additional socio-demographic and migration-related factors. Suicidal ideation (OR 2.4 95% CI 1.3–4.3) was associated with binge drinking among Kurds and lifetime cannabis use among Russians (OR 5.6, 95% CI 1.9–17.0) and Kurds (OR 5.5, 95% CI 1.9–15.6). Affective symptoms were associated with daily smoking (OR 1.6, 95% CI 1.02–2.6) and lifetime cannabis use (OR 6.1, 95% CI 2.6–14.5) among Kurdish migrants. Our results draw attention to the co-occurrence of suicidal ideation, affective symptoms, and substance use, especially among Kurdish migrants. These results highlight the variation of comorbidity of substance use and affective symptoms between the different populations. This implies that screening for substance use in mental healthcare cannot be neglected based on presumed habits of substance use.

Measuring the effectiveness of theory in action: grass-roots initiatives and social justice for Japan’s Kurdish migrants

ABSTRACTSet in the Kurdish migrant community of Kawaguchi, Japan, the current study examines interview data to investigate the effectiveness of advocacy initiatives to stimulate social justice. Analysis is based on Byram’s Model of Intercultural Communicative Competence. Measured according to Sorrels's and Leydens and Lucena’s characteristics of social justice, the results indicate progress toward this aim. However, the emergent opportunities that favour the documented and the continuing risks for the undocumented suggest an unequal distribution of social justice. The initiatives discussed here hold implementation potential in other migrant communities, especially those of populations that are minorities in their countries of origin.

Pre-migration traumatic experiences, post-migration perceived discrimination and substance use among Russian and Kurdish migrants-a population-based study.

Background and aimsThe associations between traumatic events, substance use and perceived discrimination have been rarely studied among migrants in host countries. We examined whether pre‐migration potentially traumatic experiences (PTEs) or perceived discrimination (PD) are associated with substance use among migrants with voluntary (Russians) and forced (Kurds) migration backgrounds.DesignCross‐sectional interview and health examination data from the Finnish Migrant Health and Wellbeing Study were used. The target sample (n = 1000 for each group) was drawn from the national population register using stratified random sampling by participants’ country of birth and native language.SettingPopulation‐based data were collected from six cities in Finland during 2010–12.ParticipantsThe participation rates were 68% (Russians) and 59% (Kurds). The analytical sample size varied (Russians n = 442–687, Kurds n = 459–613), as some participants completed only interview, health examination or short interview. The majority of Kurds had a refugee background (75%) while Russians had mainly migrated for other reasons (99%).MeasurementsThe three main outcomes were self‐reported binge drinking, daily smoking and life‐time cannabis use. PTEs and PD were self‐reported in the interview. Socio‐demographic background, migration‐related factors and current affective symptoms were adjusted for.FindingsAmong Kurds, PTEs were associated with binge drinking [adjusted odds ratio (aOR) = 2.65, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 1.30–5.42] and PD was associated with life‐time cannabis use (aOR = 3.89, 95% CI = 1.38–10.97) after adjusting for contextual factors. Among Russians, PTEs were associated with life‐time cannabis use adjusting for contextual factors (aOR = 2.17, 95% CI = 1.12–4.18).ConclusionsIn Finland, pre‐migration traumatic experiences appear to be associated with life‐time cannabis use among the Russian migrant population (voluntary migration) and binge drinking among the Kurdish migrant population (forced migration). Perceived discrimination in Finland appears to be associated with life‐time cannabis use among Kurdish migrants.

Elites and emulators: The evolution of Iraqi Kurdish asylum migration to Europe

AbstractResearch on migration’s internal dynamics has focused on labour migration and drawn heavily on cumulative causation theory. It is often believed that pioneer labour migrants of middling socioeconomic selectivity facilitate the migration of others in their networks by reducing the costs and risks of migration through practical assistance. Expanding migrant networks can allow for labour migration to grow although macrostructural conditions change. For asylum migration in the context of armed conflict, the mechanisms whereby migration grows may very well differ. For one thing, pioneer asylum migrants in such contexts are often social elites. What is the relationship between the movement of these elites and that of subsequent asylum migrants? This article traces the evolution of Iraqi Kurdish asylum migration to Europe from its inception by elite pioneer migrants to its continuation by non-elites, during four decades of altered contextual conditions. The analysis is based on 106 semi-structured interviews with Iraqi Kurdish migrants. An evolving interplay between exogenous and endogenous dynamics is observed, and so are commonalities with the social processes that underpin labour migration. The basic principles of cumulative causation seem to be operating, yet there is little to indicate that established migrants functioned as ‘bridgeheads’ for newcomers. The empirical analysis feeds into a concluding conceptual discussion in which I argue that, compared to labour migration, asylum migration from conflict-affected areas may be relatively less driven by the interpersonal networks that reduce costs and risks, and relatively more driven by what the article coins ‘emulation’, the observational learning of migration.

The prevalence of substance use among Russian, Somali and Kurdish migrants in Finland: a population-based study

BackgroundSubstance use is a well-known public health problem, but population-based research on migrants’ substance use in Europe is limited. Factors related to the cultural background and current life situation might influence substance use among migrants. Here, the prevalence of substance use in Russian, Somali and Kurdish migrants in Finland is reported in comparison with the general population, and the associations between substance use and socio-economic and migration-related background factors among migrants are analysed.MethodsCross-sectional data from the Finnish Migrant Health and Wellbeing Study (Maamu) and comparison group data of the general Finnish population (n = 1165) from the Health 2011 Survey were used. The survey participants were of Russian (n = 702), Somali (n = 512), and Kurdish (n = 632) origin. Substance use included self-reported alcohol use within previous 12 months (AUDIT-C questionnaire), current and lifetime daily smoking and lifetime use of cannabis and intravenous drugs.ResultsBinge drinking was less prevalent among all migrant groups than in the general Finnish population (Russian men 65%, p < 0.01; Russian women 30%, p < 0.01, Somali men 2%, p < 0.01, Kurdish men 27%, p < 0.01, Kurdish women 6%, p < 0.01, general population men 87% and women 72%). Current daily smoking was more prevalent among Russian (28%, p = 0.04) and Kurdish (29%, p < 0.01) migrant men compared with the reference group (20%). Younger age and employment were associated with binge drinking among migrants. Socio-economic disadvantage increased the odds for daily smoking in Russian, Somali and Kurdish migrant men. Several migration-related factors, such as age at migration and language proficiency, were associated with substance use.ConclusionsBinge drinking is less common among migrants than in the Finnish general population. However, current daily smoking was more prevalent among Russian and Kurdish migrant men compared with the general population. Younger age, level of education, employment, duration of residence in Finland and language proficiency were associated with binge drinking and daily smoking with varying patterns of association depending on the migrant group and gender. These findings draw attention to the variation in substance use habits among migrant populations.

4.11-P5The effects of potentially traumatic events and experiences of discrimination on the substance use of migrants. A population-based study on Russian and Kurdish migrants in Finland

4.11-P5The effects of potentially traumatic events and experiences of discrimination on the substance use of migrants. A population-based study on Russian and Kurdish migrants in Finland

Missed hepatitis b/c or syphilis diagnosis among Kurdish, Russian, and Somali origin migrants in Finland: linking a population-based survey to the national infectious disease register

BackgroundMigrants are considered a key population at risk for sexually transmitted and blood-borne diseases in Europe. Prevalence data to support the design of infectious diseases screening protocols are scarce. We aimed to estimate the prevalence of hepatitis B and C, human immunodefiency virus (HIV) infection and syphilis in specific migrant groups in Finland and to assess risk factors for missed diagnosis.MethodsA random sample of 3000 Kurdish, Russian, or Somali origin migrants in Finland was invited to a migrant population-based health interview and examination survey during 2010–2012. Participants in the health examination were offered screening for hepatitis B and C, HIV and syphilis. Notification prevalence in the National Infectious Diseases Register (NIDR) was compared between participants and non-participants to assess non-participation. Missed diagnosis was defined as test-positive case in the survey without previous notification in NIDR. Inverse probability weighting was used to correct for non-participation.ResultsAltogether 1000 migrants were screened for infectious diseases. No difference in the notification prevalence among participants and non-participants was observed. Seroprevalence of hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) was 2.3%, hepatitis C antibodies 1.7%, and Treponema pallidum antibodies 1.3%. No cases of HIV were identified. Of all test-positive cases, 61% (34/56) had no previous notification in NIDR. 48% of HBsAg, 62.5% of anti-HCV and 84.6% of anti-Trpa positive cases had been missed. Among the Somali population (n = 261), prevalence of missed hepatitis B diagnosis was 3.0%. Of the 324 Russian migrants, 3.0% had not been previously diagnosed with hepatitis C and 2.4% had a missed syphilis diagnosis. In multivariable regression model missed diagnosis was associated with migrant origin, living alone, poor self-perceived health, daily smoking, and previous diagnosis of another blood-borne infection.ConclusionsMore than half of chronic hepatitis and syphilis diagnoses had been missed among migrants in Finland. Undiagnosed hepatitis B among Somali migrants implies post-migration transmission that could be prevented by enhanced screening and vaccinations. Rate of missed diagnoses among Russian migrants supports implementation of targeted hepatitis and syphilis screening upon arrival and also in later health care contacts. Coverage and up-take of current screening among migrants should be evaluated.

Hybrid language practices on Turkey’s national Kurdish television station: Iconic perspectives on form

AbstractThe language policy of Turkey’s state-run Kurdish television station (TRT Kurdî) allows for Kurdish-Turkish hybridity, which reflects common practice among Turkish Kurds (Schluter, Anne. 2014. Competing or compatible language identities in Istanbul’s Kurmanji workplaces? In Kristina Kamp, Ayhan Kaya, Fuat Keyman &amp; Özge Onursal-Beşgül (eds.),Contemporary Turkey at a Glance. Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Local and Trans-local Dynamics, 125–137. Wiesbaden, Germany: Springer.) and promotes ownership among minority language speakers (Hinnenkamp, Volker. 2003. Mixed language varieties of migrant adolescents and the discourse of hybridity.Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development24(1–2). 12–41.). Nevertheless, the mixing of Turkish and apparent disregard for Kurdish language rules has led some of the target audience to reject the station (Öpengin, Ergin. 2012. Sociolinguistic situation of Kurdish in Turkey: Sociopolitical factors and language use patterns.International Journal of the Sociology of Language217. 151–180.). Such attention to form, according to (Lemon, Alaina. 2002. Form and function in Soviet stage Romani: Modeling metapragmatics through performance institutions.Language in Society31. 29–64.) is usually reserved for minority language activists and dominant language speakers whereas marginalized minority language speakers frequently focus on function. Through semi-structured interviews with twenty politically engaged Kurdish migrants of Istanbul, the current study investigated metalinguistic criticisms about the station to deconstruct perceptions of the suitability of a hybrid Kurdish broadcasting language in relation to findings from (Lemon, Alaina. 2002. Form and function in Soviet stage Romani: Modeling metapragmatics through performance institutions.Language in Society31. 29–64.) and (Hinnenkamp, Volker. 2003. Mixed language varieties of migrant adolescents and the discourse of hybridity.Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development24(1–2). 12–41.). In contrast to (Hinnenkamp, Volker. 2003. Mixed language varieties of migrant adolescents and the discourse of hybridity.Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development24(1–2). 12–41.), participants viewed linguistic hybridity on TRT Kurdî asiconic(Irvine, Judith &amp; Susan Gal. 2000. Language ideology and linguistic differentiation. In Paul V. Kroskrity (ed.),Regimes of language: ideologies, politics, and identities, 35–84. Santa Fe, NM: School of American Research Press.) of the Turkish state’s agenda to assimilate its Kurdish population. Furthermore, the transfer of this agenda onto a sub-group within the same in-group, TRT Kurdî’s producers, provided evidence of fractal recursivity (Irvine, Judith &amp; Susan Gal. 2000. Language ideology and linguistic differentiation. In Paul V. Kroskrity (ed.),Regimes of language: ideologies, politics, and identities, 35–84. Santa Fe, NM: School of American Research Press.). Results call for a broadening of Lemon (2002) to allow for the inclusion of a larger portion of minority language-speaking populations whose language, similar to the Istanbul-resident Kurdish community profiled in the current study, has been deeply politicized.

The children and their parents: Changing spatial belongings among migrants’ generations

This study aims to analyze the process of changing spatial belongings of migrants’ generations. The First generation who moved out from Eastern and Southeastern of Turkey haven’t cut their communication with their hometown. On the contrary, they have built new belonging relations with the host culture. This is the exact opposite of the second generation. The second generation, who are children of the first generation, have built sense of belonging to İnegöl where they live. Also the second generation have prevented their parents from returning to their hometown. It shows that children and their parents have been living in the different worlds although they live in the same homes. This study has been conducted on migrants living in Huzur Neighborhood, İnegöl, Bursa. Empirically, I conducted in depth interviews and focus groups discussions with 30 migrants to capture the changing spatial belongings of the two generations of migrants. Keywords: Construction of identity, Kurdish migrants, ıntergenerational relations, Turkey

“The Name Says It All, It’s Saraybostan”: Low-Income Kurdish Migrant Women’s Experiences with Life in a Poverty-Impacted Urban Neighborhood

ABSTRACTAs part of a larger ethnographic study on low-income Kurdish mothers’ reconstruction of their lives after rural-to-urban migration, this article explored how they experienced life in a poverty-impacted neighborhood of Istanbul, Turkey. Twenty-seven Kurdish mothers were recruited through purposive and snowball sampling. Data were collected through demographic surveys, semi-structured in-depth interviews, and participant observations. Women’s narratives focused primarily on three aspects, namely financial challenges, crime, and neighbor relations. Participants discussed both challenges and coping strategies pertaining to each aspect. Study findings underlined similarities and differences in life experiences of families living in poverty-impacted urban communities across the global context.

Contribution of sociodemographic and lifestyle-related factors to the differences in metabolic syndrome among Russian, Somali and Kurdish migrants compared with Finns

BackgroundMetabolic syndrome (MetS) is associated with a substantially increased risk for cardiovascular disease and diabetes. We examined the contribution of length of residence, socioeconomic position and lifestyle-related factors to the differences in the prevalence of MetS among migrants compared with Finns. MethodsCross-sectional data from randomly sampled 30–64year-old health examination participants (318 Russian, 212 Somali, and 321 Kurdish origin migrants) of the Migrant Health and Wellbeing Survey (2010−2012) were used. Health 2011 Survey participants (n=786) were the reference group. ResultsCompared with Finns, prevalence of MetS was significantly higher among all migrants except for Somali men. Among men, age-adjusted prevalence ratio (PR) of MetS compared with Finns was 1.71, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.19–2.46 for Russians, PR 0.95 (95% CI 0.54–1.67) for Somali, and PR 2.10 (95% CI 1.51–2.93) for Kurds. Among women, respective PRs were 1.45 (95% CI 1.08–1.97) for Russians, PR 2.34 (95% CI 1.75–3.14) for Somali and PR 2.22 (95% CI 1.67–2.97) for Kurds. Adjustment for sociodemographic and lifestyle-related factors attenuated the differences in MetS among women but not men. ConclusionsFurther studies should aim at identifying factors related to elevated risk for MetS among Russian and Kurdish men. Interventions aiming at improving lifestyle-related factors are needed for reducing inequalities in the prevalence of MetS among migrant women. Effectiveness of interventions focusing on reducing overweight and obesity among Somali and Kurdish women should be evaluated.

The Prevalence of Potentially Traumatic Pre-Migration Experiences: A Population- Based Study of Russian, Somali and Kurdish Origin Migrants in Finland

Background: On-going mass conflicts and the resulting flow of displaced persons have increased interest in potentially traumatic experiences (PTEs) of migrants. However, studies on the topic using population-based samples are still scarce. Aims: The present study aims 1) to assess the prevalence of specific PTEs in Finland's migrant population and 2) to determine whether socio-demographic and migration-related factors are associated with PTEs. Methods: Data from the Finnish Migrant Health and Wellbeing Study (Maamu), a cross-sectional interview and health examination survey, was used. The sample comprised Russian; Somali and Kurdish migrants aged 18-64. PTEs, with eight specified traumatic event items common among those exposed to war and conflict, were measured using interview questions. Results: The prevalence of having at least one PTE was 21% among Russian, 58% among Somalian and 77% among Kurdish origin migrants, higher in Kurdish men than women and lower in Somali men than women. The most typical forms of PTEs among Kurds and Somalis were war and witnessing a violent death or injury. The most severe events (e.g. torture) were more common and the highest cumulative number of PTEs was among Kurds. Migrating as a refugee or asylum seeker was not associated with higher prevalence of PTEs. Conclusions: Results indicated an alarmingly high overall PTE prevalence among Kurdish and Somali migrants in Finland, especially among Kurds. Results suggest that effort to identify PTEs and interventions should be targeted not only at those migrating with a refugee of asylum seeker status but all migrants from conflict areas.

Cosmopolitanism and the relevance of 'zombie concepts': the case of anomic suicide amongst Alevi Kurd youth.

Against Beck's claims that conventional sociological concepts and categories are zombie categories, this paper argues that Durkheim's theoretical framework in which suicide is a symptom of an anomic state of society can help us understand the diversity of trajectories that transnational migrants follow and that shape their suicide rates within a cosmopolitan society. Drawing on ethnographic data collected on eight suicides and three attempted suicide cases of second-generation male Alevi Kurdish migrants living in London, this article explains the impact of segmented assimilation/adaptation trajectories on the incidence of suicide and how their membership of a 'new rainbow underclass', as a manifestation of cosmopolitan society, is itself an anomic social position with a lack of integration and regulation.