Kinds Of Units Research Articles

Heterozygosity in tetraploid potatoes revealed by rDNA polymorphism analysis of their dihaploid progenies: a contribution to chromosome assignment

Restriction map and organization of rDNA was inferred from analysis of dihaploid progenies of two tetraploid genotypes of cultivated potato. Each tetraploid genotype was characterized by a specific distribution of different types of rDNA repetition units on their four homologous chromosomes II. The genotypes were heterozygous and differed by the kind of units carried by each chromosome II. Models for the generation of the observed organization are discussed and supported by first cloning studies.

Distributed Intelligence Systems Based on Knowledge Modules of Cellular Robotic System “CEBOT”

Abstract We have studied “Cellular Robotic System (CEBOT)”, which consists of many kinds of units called “cell”. CEBOT is required to be able to carry out many sorts of tasks under various surroundings. But it is impossible for CEBOT to install all sorts of the task execution procedures. Then CEBOT should be able to generate task execution procedures for a new task by reconfigurating himself. In this paper, we propose a new kind of the distributed intelligence system which is based on the concept of CEBOT. This proposed intelligence system has the abilities of learning, reasoning, and self-organizing. As similar to the hardware structure of CEBOT, this system consists of various kinds of intelligence units called “knowledge-cell”. By using the knowledge-cells and the proposed algorithms, the system which can generate task procedures is realized. Some simulations are also shown for demonstrating the self-organization and self-evolution abilities of the distributed intelligence system.

Cerebellar Units Show Several Types of Early Responses to Telencephalic Stimulation in Catfish

The responses of cerebellar units following electrical stimulation applied to the area dorsalis centralis (Dc) of the telencephalon were studied in the siluroid teleost Ictalurus nebulosus. Two kinds of units are distinguished on physiological criteria, identified as Purkinje and eurydendroid cells (the efferent neurons of the cerebellum in teleosts equivalent to cells of the deep nuclei in other vertebrates). A high proportion of both kinds of units in the corpus cerebelli are sensitive to such stimulation. Each kind of unit shows several consistent response types. Purkinje cells fire simple spikes spontaneously at the rate of 8-50 spikes/s and respond to a single shock to Dc with an initial latency of 34-64 ms. The response can be one of the following types: (1) inhibition alone, with a duration of 0.3-1.5 s; (2) initial inhibition for 0.04-0.2 s, followed by postinhibitory rebound, or (3) initial excitation followed by inhibition which may or may not be followed by a late excitation. It is suggested that the initial excitation and the initial inhibition reflect the activation of mossy fiber-granule cell-Purkinje cell circuitry and mossy fiber-granule cell-inhibitory interneuron-Purkinje cell circuitry, respectively. Indirect evidence suggests the involvement of climbing fibers, but their characteristic complex spikes are rarely seen. Changing the stimulation sites within Dc does not appear to change the response pattern but may alter the threshold intensities, latencies and amplitudes. Changing stimulation frequency has complex effects depending on the response type. Purkinje cells responding with initial excitation are located along the lateral edges and along the midline of the corpus cerebelli; units responding with initial inhibition are more often found in an intermediate zone. This suggests three sagittal bands on each side. The contralateral cerebellum has a relative excess of Purkinje cells with initially inhibitory response. Putative eurydendroid cells show either initial excitation or a pattern of inhibition, excitation, inhibition. The initial latency is longer than in Purkinje cells. The contralateral cerebellum has a relative excess of eurydendroid cells with initially excitatory response. The high proportion of units that respond to Dc stimulation, their complex dynamics, diverse response types and compartmentalization point to the importance of the cerebrocerebellar influence in teleosts. Principal differences from mammals are the much longer latencies and less differentiation according to place of stimulation in the cerebrum.

Ethological studies in animals and man, their use in psychiatry.

Ethology is concerned with the observation, description and measurement of the acts and postures which make up the behavioural repertoire of animals. Man too, exhibits analogous patterns of non-verbal behaviour, many of which serve social interactions. It is shown how ethological profiles of psychiatric patients can be constructed using the same methods as are used to analyse the social behaviour of rodents. It is argued that deficits in social behaviour are a key feature of the mentally ill patient and arise when flight, i. e. escape-oriented behaviour predominates. This notion is supported by an ethological study which shows that compared to healthy subjects, depressed patients exhibit fewer facial expressions and gestures which instigate or invite social interactions. These patterns serve to isolate the depressive patients from the group. With its emphasis upon objective analysis of behaviour, the ethological approach can provide a useful adjunct to conventional but largely subjective, clinical assessment schemes. It can also help to integrate findings in man and animals since in both, the behaviour is assessed in the same kind of units according to a common conceptual framework.

Reactivity of Cyclic Imino Ether Salts Having Vinyl Group V. Spontaneous and Base-Catalyzed Polymerization of N-Protio Salts of 2-Alkenyl-2-oxazolines and 2-Alkenyl-5,6-dihydro-4H-1,3-oxazines

Four derivatives of 2-alkenyl cyclic imino ethers were reacted with fluorosulfonic and with trifluoromethanesulfonic acids. 2-Isopropenyl-2-oxazoline (1b) and 2-isopropenyl-5,6-dihydro-4H-1,3-oxazine (1d) formed the stable N-protonated salts at 0°C. Whereas, 2-vinyl-2-oxazoline (1a) and 2-vinyl-5,6-dihydro-4H-1,3-oxazine (1c) were polymerized on protonation (spontaneous polymerization) at the same temperature to give polymers consisting of two kinds of units; one was formed by the opening of vinyl group and the other was derived by a proton transfer. By a low temperature reaction of 1a with fluorosulfonic acid at −20°C, the N-protonated salt was successfully isolated, but the corresponding salt of 1c was not obtained by the same procedure. For these three salts isolated, base-catalyzed polymerization was examined with pyridine and triethylamine as initiators at a temperature below 20°C. The salt of 1b gave a polymer consisting exclusively of the proton transferred unit. On the contrary, the salt of 1d was not polymerized at all. As a reference salt, the N-methyl salt of 1d, i.e., 3-methyl-2-isopropenyl-5,6-dihydro-4H-1,3-oxazinium salt, was prepared by the reaction of 1d with methyl trifluoromethanesulfonate, which was not polymerized, too. On the basis of these findings the reactivity of N-methyl and N-protio salts of 2-alkenyl cyclic imino ethers were discussed.

The polymerisation of 2-furyl vinyl ketone

2-Furyl vinyl ketone was polymerised using anionic, cationic and free-radical initiators. Yields and molecular weights varied with the type of activation. Whereas radical polymerisation gave a product possessing a regular vinylic structure, other kinds of units were detected in the polymers prepared with anionic and cationic catalysts.

Object perception and object-directed reaching in infancy.

Five-month-old infants were presented with a small object, a larger object, and a background surface arranged in depth so that all were within reaching distance. Patterns of reaching for this display were observed, while spatial and kinetic properties of the display were varied. When the infants reached for the display, they did not reach primarily for the surfaces that were nearer, smaller, or presented in motion. The infants reached, instead, for groups of surfaces that formed a unit that was spatially connected and/or that moved as a whole relative to its surroundings. Infants reached for the nearer of two objects as a distinct unit when the objects were separated in depth or when one object moved relative to the other. They reached for the two objects as a single unit when the objects were adjacent or when they moved together. The reaching patterns provided evidence that the infants organized each display into the kind of units that adults call objects: manipulable units with internal coherence and external boundaries. Infants, like adults, perceived objects by detecting both the spatial arrangements and the relative movements of surfaces in the three-dimensional layout.

On the ultrastructure and the formation of pseudo-exfoliation material.

Pseudo-exfoliation (PE) excrescences on the anterior lens surface were studied by electron microscopy. In some cases the superficial layer of the excrescences consisted of a meshwork of fibrils and filamentous subfibrillar units. It could be clearly seen that the fibrils were formed by lateral aggregation of filamentous units. Both the filaments and the fibrils had crossbands regularly spaced at 17 nm. In some fibrils, every third crossband was fainter than their neighbouring crossbands. Thereby a secondary periodicity appeared, the new period consisting of three crossbands in the order dense-faint-dense. The length of this period was 17 x 3 = 51 nm, i.e. the same as the distance between the crossbands of conventional PE fibrils. All transitional forms between the fibrils with 17 nm periodicity and the conventional PE fibrils were found, and there was a gradual transition between the material described and conventional PE material. It is suggested that the material on the surface of the PE excrescences represent newly formed PE material. This may be formed by condensation and linear polymerization of two kinds of units, corresponding to the dense and the faint crossbands.

Correlative physiological and morphological studies of rapidly adapting mechanoreceptors in cat's glabrous skin.

1. A total of fifty-four mechanoreceptor afferent units with fast conducting axons in the tibial nerve innervating the glabrous skin of the hind leg were isolated in anaesthetized cats. 2. Twenty-six rapidly adapting units (RA), eighteen slowly adapting units (SA) and ten Pacinian corpuscle units (PC) were differentiated from each other mainly on the presence of the off response in RA and PC units to a ramp stimulation, the persistence of discharges of the SA units during steady pressure on the receptive field and the classical tuning curve seen in the PC units. A few PC units in the hairy skin were also studied for comparison. 3. Lamellated corpuscles were found histologically in the skin of the receptive field of RA units and identified as Krause's corpuscle of cylindrical type by their superficial location in the cutaneous tissue and their structure revealed by electron microscopy. 4. Physiological characteristics of RA units to various forms of mechanical stimulation were studied and compared with those of the other two kinds of units. SA units had the lowest critical slope among three groups and PC units the highest. 5. The discharge pattern of RA and PC units to a ramp stimulation was found to be time-locked, whereas with SA unites only the first spike appeared at a fixed latency from the start of stimulation. 6. Some RA units showed a tuning curve which was flat from 10 to 200 Hz. Those with narrowly tuned curves had a best turning frequency at around 20 Hz. They were easily differentiated from the SA and PC units. SA units were tuned best at 5 HZ or less, and PC units at around 200 HZ. 7. The relation between the indentation velocity and amplitude of the ramp and the spike discharges was analysed in eleven RA units. In most cases the relation between identation velocity and maximum instataneous frequency was found to be best fit with a power function although other kinds of functions (linear, logarithmic, and logarithmic hyperbolic tangent) could also fit the relation at the 1% significance level. The instantaneous impuse frequency in RA units in response to various indentation amplitudes showed a step function. 8. The "off" responses to a ramp stimulation in RA units were also analysed in detail.

Lattice Vibrations in Spinel Type Crystals CdxZn1-xCr2Se4

The lattice vibrations in Cd x Zn 1- x Cr 2 Se 4 crystals have been studied by measuring the reflection at normal incidence in the region of wave number above 30 cm -1 . Four reststrahlen bands were observed over all composition range, and the positions and the intensities of these bands vary with the composition. The behaviours of these variations show a characteristic of one-mode type. The transverse mode frequencies are calculated from the classical dispersion theory. The composition dependences of those transverse mode frequencies can be explained with a virtual crystal model which includes two kinds of units: a mass and force constants are varied monotonically with the fractional amount of Cd ion in the mixed crystal. The frequencies of the longitudinal modes are also calculated. The condition for the appearance of the one-mode or two-mode type is shortly discussed.

Study of Polyisoprene Microstructure by Flash Pyrolysis Gas Chromatography

Abstract Flash pyrolysis of polyisoprene at 500°C in nitrogen atmosphere leads to four isomeric dimers of isoprene: dipentene, diprene, and 1,4-, and 2,4-dimethyl-4-vinyl-cyclohexenes. From systematic studies of various synthetic polyisoprenes of different microstructures, the four cyclic dimers have been assigned to specific diads of 4,1-4,3 or 1,2 units; for instance, dipentene and 2,4-dimethyl 4-vinyl cyclohexene are respectively characteristic of 4,1-4,1 and 4,1-4,3 diads. It has been possible to draw some correlations between the nature and the amount of the thermal degradation products and the distribution of the different kinds of units along the polymeric chain; anionic polyisoprenes obtained in the presence of alkali earth metals behave as random copolymers of 4,1 and 4,3 units, but Ziegler-Natta polyisoprenes shew a definite tendency to alternate the same units.

The Hunting of the “Quark” in Speech Production: Further Evidence from Speech Errors

The search for “basic building blocks” has characterized the aim of many scientists, whether these fundamentals are the physicists' “quarks” or the phoneticians' basic behavioral units. Speech-error data provide evidence that different kinds of units are found to be organized into levels, which levels may correspond to steps in the serial ordering of behavioral events. Any model of this process which considers the phonemic segment as the basic “spark” or “queach” (i.e., speech quark) cannot account for the kinds of lapsūs linguae which occur. But a model which includes only the smaller-sized units, called “distinctive features” by linguists, will also be shown to be inadequate. While such “features” must be afforded an independent status at one link in the speech chain, they are dependent on segment-sized units at an earlier stage. The paper discusses the kinds of features which must be posited and attempts to show that these are related to but not identical with the phonologists' “distinctive features.”

Electrophysiological studies on the otolith organ.

The mode of function of the otolith organ was investigated by recording action potentials from the first order neuron of the guinea pig. In the present experiment ‘nose-down’ unit was recorded more frequently than ‘nose-up’ unit, whereas ‘side-up’ unit was almost equal in number to ‘side-down’ unit. The reaction of the otolith organ was much influenced by tilting speed-more remarkable in slow tilt than in rapid one. Two different kinds of units were noted in sustained tilt, one showed remarkable adaptation and the other showed moderate adaptation. They were recorded in the ratio of 1:5. In galvanic stimulation every unit showed enhancement in cathodic stimulation and suppression in anodic stimulation. Two kinds of adaptation were also found in the same fashion as in tilting stimulation. It is the precent authors' working hypothesis that the difference of adaptation is due to different size of the nerve fibers.

Pars intermedia: unitary electrical activity regulated by light.

In the pars intermedia of frogs in the dark two types of spontaneously firing neuronal units have been found; one can be inhibited by and the other is indifferent to increases in illumination. The receptor for the light-inhibited units appears to be the pineal organ. Transection experiments indicate that the axons to the two kinds of units in the pars intermedia are separately grouped in the floor.

The Sememic Approach to Structural Semantics1

AS PART of the justification for their existence, languages have an intimate but only partially understood relationship to a vague entity which we call meaning. There is no general agreement as to just how initimate this relationship is: that is, as to whether meaning is or is not included within language, partly or wholly, in one of its aspects or levels or more than one (if indeed there are more than one). But many linguists have thought it would be very desirable, and perhaps also possible, to set up or discover some structural units which would either be units of meaning itself or in some other way would help us to systematize our treatment of that vague entity. A name for such a unit, Sememe, has been available for a long time. It was provided by Bloomfield (1926). We are not constrained, of course, to use his definition in order to use the term. Just as with the morpheme and other concepts of his and others, we may refine our understanding of the unit without adding a new name to an already formidable collection of terminology. For Bloomfield, the sememe was the meaning of a morpheme. This concept would seem to put sememes and morphemes in a one-to-one correspondence with each other-that is, a sememe for every morpheme and a morpheme for every sememe. Such a view of the relationship ought to make it unnecessary for there to be two kinds of units, and one is led to wonder why, in this case, Bloomfield bothered to have sememes in his system at all. But the reason becomes clear when we recall that for Bloomfield a morpheme was composed of phonemes. Certainly, sequences of phonemes could not themselves be units of meaning as well; so it was necessary to adopt an alternative, namely that these sequences, the morphemes, have meanings; and these meanings were the sememes. Nowadays, on the other hand, many linguists view morphemes not as composed of phonemes but as represented by phonemes and combinations of phonemes. For those of us who hold this view, morphemes are not units of expression so the notion of a one-to-one correspondence between morphemes and sememes would amount to the same thing as making the sememes quite useless, except for those who take pleasure in multiplying entities praeter necessitatem. Now, of course, the fact that a name exists, even one given by Bloomfield, does not compel us to go out and find something to use it for. Nor should we be unduly influenced by its suffix, so that we suppose we must find an emic type of entity in the area of content, having those same important properties as other emes we have come to know. Of course, there is no objection to anyone's setting out to look for such an entity, provided he maintains the proper degree of caution. On the other hand, this was not the approach that I used. It

Stages and Periods in Archaeological Interpretation

STAGES and periods are different kinds of units used to organize archaeological evidence so that it can be interpreted in terms of cultural change. The difference is that are units of cultural similarity, while periods are units of time, or, more specifically, units of contemporaneity. Within a single small area, cultural units which are closely similar are usually also nearly contemporary, so that are equivalent to periods. When the problem is one of matching local sequences over a large area, however, established on the basis of uniform criteria can be expected to give a different matching from periods, because of the effects of diffusion. An examination of the problems involved in the organization of archaeological sequences suggests that periods provide a more useful basis for cultural interpretation than stages, provided that the periods are defined with reference to some single local sequence which is known in precise detail.' Stages, as we have said, are units of cultural similarity. Cultural units are assigned to the same stage because they share one or more features which have been selected as diagnostic for that stage and lack other features which are considered diagnostic of other stages. What distinguishes from other kinds of classificatory units based on similarity is the fact that are supposed to follow one another in a fixed order. When are used their order is still sometimes determined in the 18th and 19th century manner by deducing it from the theory of progress, but in archaeological practice the order is usually controlled by empirically established sequences. There are two kinds of which can be used to relate local archaeological sequences to one another, and I propose to call them simple stages and complex stages respectively. Simple are those defined on the basis of the presence or absence of a single feature. For example, we may find, in a particular area, that cultural units which include pottery everywhere follow other cultural units which lack pottery. We can then use this observation as the basis for defining two stages, a non-pottery or pre-ceramic stage and a ceramic one. It is not necessary

Spectral responses of single units in the primate visual cortex.

Spectral response behavior of single units was investigated in the visual cortex of the unanesthetized macaque monkeys with test stimuli of 0.5° in visual angle. 1. Cortical and optic radiation units were distinguished by the configuration of spikes and spontaneous discharge rate. 2. “On” units responding to a narrow-band of the spectrum were designated as “chromatic” or C type units. Their response maxima were found in three selected regions of the spectrum, orange-red (600-640 mμ), green (520-540 mμ) and blue (460 mμ) respectively. Most units showed one or two submaxima besides the dominant peak in their spectral response curves. 3. Some units responded to a certain limited region of the spectrum with “on” or “off”, but to another with “off” or “on”, thus changing discharge type depending on the wavelengths. These units were designated as “opponent” or O type units. 4. Some units responded to the whole parts of the spectrum, but showed no clear-cut response maxima anywhere in the visible parts of the spectrum. 5. Some “on-off” units and pure “off” units showed two response maxima towards both ends of the spectrum. 6. Two kinds of units, A and B, relating to rod receptors were distinguished. The common feature of these units was that the sensitivity maximum was found at about 500 mμ The unit A had a large receptive field and gave “on-off” discharges. Its photosensitivity is low compared with that of B. The unit B was always linked with photopic units and worked in a range of low intensities in which the linked photopic unit was almost inactive. Its receptive field was very small as compared with that of A.

The Classification of Artifacts in Archaeology

AbstractAnalytic classification consists of forming successive series of classes, referring to different features of artifacts. Each class is characterized by one or more attributes which indicate a custom to which the artisan conformed, for example, a technique of manufacture, or a concept which he expressed in the artifacts, such as a design. These customs and concepts constitute modes. They are “procedural modes” when they refer to behavior of artisans and “conceptual modes” when they consist of ideas which artisans have expressed in artifacts.Taxonomic classification consists of formulating a single set of classes, one for each kind of artifact in the collection. Each class is characterized by two or more modes, selected from among the total number of modes obtainable by means of analytic classification. The modes diagnostic of each class constitute its type. If diagnostic modes are selected for their time-space significance, the resultant types are “historical.” If the diagnostic modes are selected for what they indicate about the intrinsic nature of the artifacts, the types are “descriptive.”The situations under which it is best to use either procedural or conceptual modes or historical or descriptive types are discussed and it is concluded that all four kinds of units are essential for the complete interpretation of archaeological remains.

Independent Inactivation of Bacteriophage T1 by X-Rays and Ultraviolet Light

Bacteriophages which survive the direct effects of irradiation exhibit nonlethal damage. Thus an extended latent period has been shown after ultraviolet irradiation by Luria (1) and after X-irradiation by Pollard et al. (2). The latter authors have suggested that the existence of both lethal and nonlethal effects may be due to the presence of two kinds of units within the phage structure-one kind vital for phage reproduction, and the other nonessential but important in determining the rates of the various steps involved in reproduction. Present knowledge does not allow an identification of such units with specific phage sites or functions, nor can it be said whether each unit or function consists of only one or a multiplicity of biological or biochemical entities.

読み易さの測り方

Current methods of readability measurement are generally “element countig”devices. On the contrary, the new method “Cloze produre” measures the degree of the likeness between the pattern a writer used and the patterns the reader is anticipating while he is reading. The basic assumption of this method lies in transitional probability of language and dispositional mechanism in individuals.As W. L. Taylor, the originator of this method, said, Cloze Procedure can be applicable to any language in any culture. In this study, the validity of applying Cloze Procedure to the Japanese language was tested. As Cloze Unit, two kinds of units were used ; letter and word. A letter corresponds to Japanese “ji” containing “kana” and “kanji”, and a word to Japanese “go”.Results :1. Cloze procedure is applicable to the Japanese language. We had better delete the word i. e. “go” as Cloze Unit.2. Cloze Procedure using “go” (word) as Cloze Unit shows more powerful discrimination than using “ji” (letter) as Cloze Unit.3. The value of 10-15% for deleting frequency may be suitable. In this range, thre effect of the deletion is not significant.4. As subjects of Cloze Procedure, 30 persons are enough to be used.Further problems :In Cloze Procedure, readability is measured only relatively, and it also may be able to make a standard scale of readebility. It is also important to study the dospositional mechanism, individual language pattern and readability itself.