Kaghan Valley Research Articles

Application of bivariate statistical techniques for landslide susceptibility mapping: A case study in Kaghan Valley, NW Pakistan

Landslides are dangerous events that threaten both human life and property. This research presents a case study of Kaghan valley catchment, which is an area of frequent landslide activity. We aim to present a comparison between the bivariate Landslide Numerical Risk Factor (LNRF), Statistical Index (SI) and Information Value (InfV) statistical models to evaluate landslide susceptibility. A total of 1556 landslides were identified using earlier reports, field surveys, and GOOGLE Earth imagery. The abundance of landslides is primarily controlled by acute deformation caused by a major thrust fault system and proximity to Hazara Kashmir Syntaxis (HKS). A landslide inventory was randomly partitioned into two datasets. 70% (1106) of landslides were used as a training phase of the models, whereas 30% (450) as validation of the three models. A spatial database of 11 conditioning factors was produced consisting of slope, aspect, elevation, lithology, land use, Topographic Wetness Index (TWI), rainfall, Stream Power Index (SPI), distance to faults, rivers and streams. All the landslide susceptibility assessment parameters were obtained from different sources and different landslide susceptibility maps were prepared on the GIS software. Performance of the three models was validated through the Receiver operator Characteristics (ROC) through success and prediction rate curves. Results show that the area under the ROC curve (AUC) for InfV, LNRF and SI models are 70.95, 83.99 and 67.56 for success rate curves and 70.75, 83.99 and 67.85 for prediction rate curves, respectively. LNRF having the highest AUC value proved to be superior for generating regional scale landslide susceptibility maps.

Exploring the tectonostratigraphy of the Pakistan Himalaya with new detrital zircon geochronology and neodymium isotope data from the Kaghan Valley

In the central Himalaya, the Greater and Lesser Himalayan tectonostratigraphic zones can be distinguished from each other by combining detrital zircon U-Pb ages and whole-rock Nd isotopic data. In the Hazara-Kashmir syntaxis of northern Pakistan, rock units in the Kaghan valley have been variously assigned to the Tethyan, Greater, and Lesser Himalayan zones. To determine which tectonostratigraphic zones are represented, we sampled across the Batal thrust in the northern Kaghan valley because this structure is identified in some research as the Main Central thrust. Samples from the footwall yield Paleo- to Mesoproterozoic maximum depositional ages (∼1.8–1.1 Ga) and an average εNd(0) value of −14.3. Samples from the hanging wall yield Neoproterozoic maximum depositional ages (∼1000–600 Ma) and εNd(0) values of −17.3. The contrasting detrital zircon ages show that the Batal thrust in the Kaghan valley is a major structural division. However, these data lack the characteristic detrital zircon age spectra and εNd(0) values of Greater and Lesser Himalayan rocks north and south of the Main Central thrust in the central Himalaya, respectively. Therefore, either the Batal thrust is not the Main Central thrust, or the Main Central thrust in the Kaghan valley cuts a different structural level and carries rock units not seen outside the Hazara-Kashmir syntaxis.

SWOT Analysis of Kaghan Valley, Mansehra: Some Suggested Measures for Sustainable Tourism Development

Kaghan valley, Mansehra, is one of the topmost tourist destinations in Pakistan. Every year millions of tourists visit this valley. The valley is known for its natural beauty and pleasant weather.Its natural beauty also attracts inbound tourists. Kaghan valley is blessed with immense tourism resources. Some of these resources have already been explored, while many of them are yet to be explored and developed. The valley has a lot of strengths and opportunities for sustainable tourism development, but at the same time, there are a number of weaknesses and threats too. If these weaknesses and threats are not tackled immediately, it will cause a decline in tourism. The current paper is an attempt to assess the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats of Kaghan valley and suggest some measures to overcome these issues for sustainable tourism development in the valley.

Problems Faced by Visitors in Pakistan: A Case Study of Kaghan Valley, Mansehra

Pakistan is one of the most beautiful countries in the world and has enormous potential to attract a maximum number of visitors who are eager to satisfy their diverse motivations. Kaghan valley being the northern part of the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan, is one of the most beautiful valleys and hill stations in the country. It is an emerging and one of the most significant destinations in the country. Every year millions of visitors visit this valley to enjoy the nature and unique cultural heritage of the area. However, due to unplanned tourism, many problems arise that cause dissatisfaction among the visitors. This paper is an attempt to highlight some of the major problems faced by visitors in the valley and make the relevant stakeholders aware of these issues. This research is the result of authors' field surveys and feedback from the five hundred visitors,collected in the form of questionnaires.

CULTURAL TOURISM IN KAGHAN VALLEY: POTENTIAL AND PROBLEMS

Cultural tourism is one of the earliest and significant motivation of the tourists. Every year thousands of tourists visit places of cultural attractions across the globe to satisfy their varying needs. Fortunately, Pakistan is among the countries blessed with rich and diverse cultures (both tangible and intangible) with a great potential to attract tourists from all over the world. Apart from the cultural resources, the country also has abundant natural destinations including lush green valleys with natural lakes and rivers, surrounded by mountains presenting panoramic views, desert, beaches and natural landscapes with unique species of birds, animals and plants. Kaghan valley, located in district Mansehra of the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa is one of the valleys with abundant cultural and natural resources. The valley, due to its pleasant weather attracts thousands of tourists from different parts of Pakistan and around the world during the summer (i.e. June-September). But, the potential of cultural tourism in the valley has not yet been identified and promoted to keep the flow of the tourists during the rest of the seasons. If proper measures be taken, the valley may attract a large number of cultural tourists and contribute to empower the community as well as to strengthen the GDP of the country. The current study aims to highlight the potential of cultural tourism; identify major problems and to suggest measures for the promotion of sustainable cultural tourism in the valley. Keywords: Cultural Tourism, Kaghan Valley, Mansehra, Folklores, Legends

Spatial distribution of heavy metal and risk indices of water and sediments in the Kunhar River and its tributaries

The present study investigated heavy metal (HM) concentrations in water and sediment of the Kunhar River and its tributaries in Kaghan valley, Northern Pakistan. The highest mean concentration was observed for iron (Fe) 316 ± 47.4 µg/L and the lowest for cadmium (Cd) 2.45 ± 0.31 µg/L in the upstream water of this study. The highest mean hazard quotient value of 0.43 was calculated for children through downstream water consumption. The concentration of HM in water was used for the calculation of HM pollution index and HM evaluation index , showing a low level of contamination. The highest mean sediment concentration was found for Fe was 35500 ± 2700 mg/L and the lowest for Cd was 1.96 ± 0.23 mg/L in upstream of Kunhar River. Pollution quantification factors values were the highest downstream. Statistical analyses revealed that water and sediment contamination of Kunhar River and its tributaries was mainly attributed to geogenic sources.

Qualitative and quantitative ethnobotanical evaluation of plant resources of Kiwai, Kaghan valley, district Mansehra, Pakistan

Local plants of an area are highly valuable for people of that locality. Plant resources are actually part and parcel of traditions and culture of inhabitants due to their consumption in daily life. Aim of the present study was to explore the culturally significant floral diversity of a remote area with special reference to medicinal plants and quantification of local wisdom through statistical indices. Study was carried out in mountainous region of Kiwai included in Kaghan valley, district Mansehra, northern Pakistan. Questionnaire method was adopted and semi-structured interviews were also conducted for data collection. Two hundred informants were interviewed to report the ethnobotanical knowledge of targeted plants. Relative frequency citation (RFCs), Consensus Index (CI%) and Use Value (UVi) were calculated for results. Study reports 110 plants belonging to 98 genera and 53 families. Asteraceae was found dominant family with 10 plant species. Angiosperms (59%) were abundant in the study area followed by Gymnosperm (5%) and Pteridophytes (2%). Herbs (59%) were recorded abundant followed by trees (31%) and shrubs (10%). The most used parts were leaves (30%), stem (13%) and whole plant (11%). Common fever was the most cited disease by locals. RFC and CI% was highest for Bergenia ciliata and Silybum marianum. Use value of Pinus roxburghii was high with 0.045 value. Study area shows rich ethno-floral diversity. Peoples are not only using plants for medicinal purposes but also for a number of uses such as for construction, as fruit, vegetable, furniture and fodder.

Economic valuation of ecosystem services in alpine pastures of western Himalayas: a case study of Kaghan valley, Pakistan

Economic valuation of ecosystem services in alpine pastures of western Himalayas: a case study of Kaghan valley, Pakistan

Problems Caused by Tourism in Kaghan Valley, Pakistan: A Study Based on Local Community Perception

Tourism being one of the greatest and fastest growing industries of the world is contributing significantly to the development of countries and the host communities. But this industry is facing many problems in most of the developing countries including Pakistan. Most of the issues are raised due to lack of planning which not only dissatisfies the tourists but also has negative impacts on the local communities. Unplanned tourism not only affects the host guest relationship but also the tourism resources of an area. The study in hand is author’s part of PhD research and highlights the problems of host regions caused by tourism in Pakistan, taking Kaghan valley as case study. The results of the study show that if proper measures are not taken well in time, the unplanned tourism will destroy the natural and socio-cultural environment of the valley very soon.

Pollen Morphology and Pollen Fertility Estimation of Three Medicinal Plant Species of <i>Hypericum</i> L. from Kaghan Valley, Northern Pakistan

Pollen morphology & pollen fertility estimation of three medicinal species belonging to genus Hypericum L. from flora of Kaghan valley, Northern Pakistan was investigated by light and scanning electron microscopy for the first time. The species are Hypericum elodeoides Choisy in, Hypericum oblongifolium Choisy, and Hypericum perforatum L. Pollen morphological characteristics with considerable variation are provided for these taxa. Among the studied taxa, the pollen grains were 3-4 colporate type and the largest pollen size was found in H. oblongifolium in polar view 23.0 μm and in equatorial view was 25.35 μm. The smallest pollen was of H. elodeoides in polar view which was 19.91 μm and in equatorial view was observed 12.53 μm in H. perforatum. The shape of the all pollen grain was circular to semi-angular in polar view, however in equatorial view the shape of the grains was oblate-spheroidal, in H. elodeoides, and H. oblongifolium while prolate in H. perforatum. Exine sculpturing was observed by scanning electron microscopy which showed foveolate sculpturing in H. elodeoides, reticulate in H. oblongifolium and scabrate in H. perforatum. Pollen fertility estimation ranged from 82.66% to 90.90% which shows that flora of selected species is well established.

Checklist of Lithophytic Mosses of Kaghan Valley, Mansehra-Pakistan

The present work is a preliminary compilation mostly based on the available literature and extensive recent field trips. Overall 46 lithophytic moss species have been reported in Kaghan valley, Mansehra-Pakistan. These species are distributed under 16 families and 28 genera. This study is very much significant regarding the diversity of mosses in the study area that proof the considerable, potential of the ambient environment for the luxurious growth of bryophytes.

Oxygen isotopes in Indian Plate eclogites (Kaghan Valley, Pakistan): Negative δ18O values from a high latitude protolith reset by Himalayan metamorphism

Abstract Oxygen isotope compositions are reported for the first time for the Himalayan metabasites of the Kaghan Valley, Pakistan in this study. The highest metamorphic grades are recorded in the north of the valley, near the India–Asia collision boundary, in the form of high-pressure (HP: Group I) and ultrahigh-pressure (UHP: Group II) eclogites. The rocks show a step-wise decrease in grade from the UHP to HP eclogites and amphibolites. The protoliths of these metabasites were the Permian Panjal Trap basalts (ca. 267 ± 2.4 Ma), which were emplaced along the northern margin of India when it was part of Gondwana. After the break-up of Gondwana, India drifted northward, subducted beneath Asia and underwent UHP metamorphism during the Eocene (ca. 45 ± 1.2 Ma). At the regional scale, amphibolites, Group I and II eclogites yielded δ18O values of + 5.84 and + 5.91‰, + 1.66 to + 4.24‰, and − 2.25 to + 0.76‰, respectively, relative to VSMOW. On a more local scale, within a single eclogite body, the δ18O values were the lowest (− 2.25 to− 1.44‰) in the central, the best preserved (least retrograded) parts, and show a systematic increase outward into more retrograded rocks, reaching up to + 0.12‰. These values are significantly lower than the typical mantle values for basalts of + 5.7 ± 0.3‰. The unusually low or negative δ18O values in Group II eclogites potentially resulted from hydrothermal alteration of the protoliths by interactions with meteoric water when the Indian plate was at southern high latitudes (~ 60°S). The stepwise increase in δ18O values, among different eclogite bodies in general and at single outcrop-scales in particular, reflects differing degrees of resetting of the oxygen isotope compositions during exhumation-related retrogression.

Screening of Pea Cultivars for Yield and Resistance towards Powdery Mildew in Dry Temperate Zone, Kaghan Valley

Field studies were conducted at Potato Research Farm, Battakundi (upper Kaghan valley) to evaluate eight Pea cultivars for yield potential against Powdery mildew during summer 2011. The disease severely infected the cultivars “Spring and Strike” up to the maximum at each side. Six cultivars were found resistant and two susceptible to the disease. Among the resistant cultivars, cultivar “Misty” out yielded with fresh Pod yield of 10.55 tons/ha followed by cultivars Legacy, Climax, Tops, Green cross Advinta giving fresh Pod yield of 10, 8.89, 7.09 and 6.48 tons/ha, respectively.

An Insight of Ecosystem Capitals and Services of the Kaghan Valley: The Himalayan Region of Pakistan

The Kaghan Valley is in the territorial jurisdiction of Mansehera District, named after a tiny village Kaghan, at the end of the valley. The valley culminates in the tree-clad high mountains and glaciers in the North-East with varying altitudes from 1 to 5 thousand meters above sea level. The region is relatively active geophysically, hydrologically and biologically diverse by virtue of the altitude and aspect-driven variability in energy and moisture. In such region a better understanding of changes in land resources, production of agronomic and horticultural crops, use of timber and non-timber products, and livestock structure/composition have important implications and understanding these changes along with the indigenous knowledge of mountain people which, is key to sustainable development of the Himalayan region. Our results showed that the main causes of lowest agriculture production in the area are poor crop management in context of the mountains, drought spells, low soil fertility, land fragmentation and tenancy status of the agricultural land. Off season vegetables cultivation on the sloppy land leads to sever soil erosion and soil land degradation of this mountain ecosystem. Overgrazing during the summer season is another problem as the pastures are visited both by the Afghan and local nomads without relating with carrying capacity of the alpine meadows. The overgrazed soil is usually subject to rainfalls and severe soil erosion. Any use of resources of such fragile rare high mountain ecosystem requires a great sense of responsibility but in this case the forest resources are being plundered and are used roughly. We recommend adequate use of agricultural inputs, specific crop management practices for mountain agriculture. Local social welfare organizations should work to create awareness about the sustainable use of natural resources. The government should resolve the ownership problem of land as common property keeping in mind the customary laws of the region to make sure the involvement of all stakeholders.

Metamorphic history and tectonic evolution of the Himalayan UHP eclogites in Kaghan valley, Pakistan

Eclogites of the Kaghan valley, Pakistan Himalaya were investigated petrographically and geochemically. Based on petrography, geochemistry and mineral compositions, metamorphic history and a reasonable tectonic model are proposed. Eclogites exposed in the Kaghan valley are classified into two groups. Group I eclogites appear as massive and Group II are lens-type. Group I eclogites have a mineral assemblage of garnet, omphacitic clinopyroxene, quartz, symplectite with rare epidote and phengite. Accessory minerals include abundant zircon, rutile, ilmenite, and rare apatite. Group II eclogites have a mineral assemblage of garnet, omphacitic clinopyroxene, phengite, quartz/coesite, epidote, and symplectite. In accessory minerals rutile and ilmenite are common while zircon and apatite are rare. Different types of protolith are proposed for these eclogites. Group I eclogites have higher FeO and TiO2 contents and trace element contents, and seem to be derived from gabbroic protolith. Group II eclogites have lower FeO and TiO2 and trace element contents and were derived from basalts. Pressure-temperature-time path was constructed for the Kaghan valley eclogites using various mineral assemblages along with textural relationship and inclusions study. At least three distinct metamorphic stages were identified. The first stage is the prograde garnet growth stage deduced from the inclusion paragenesis in garnet core. The second stage records the ultrahigh-pressure metamorphic stage deduced from the presence of coesite inclusions in omphacitic clinopyroxene. The third stage is the decompression stage and is deduced from the quartz-albite-amphibole symplectite portions. These petrological and geochemical results combined with isotopic ages reported elsewhere indicate that basalts and associated gabbroic dikes were emplaced at about 267 Ma when the Indian plate was moving northward and passing above an unknown hot spot. The closure of the Tethys and initiation of collision of the Indian plate with the Kohistan-Ladakh Island Arc is reported from 65-50 Ma. After that the leading-edge of the Indian plate underwent eclogite facies metamorphism at 49 Ma and when it reached to depths of about 100 km, the ultrahigh-pressure metamorphic event took place at 46 Ma.

Preliminary reconnaissance report for the Kashmir earthquake of 8 October 2005

A magnitude (Mw) 7.6 earthquake occurred at 8.55 am (local time) on 8 October 2005 causing extensive damage to buildings, bridges and roads and killing in excess of 87,000 people in the Kashmir region of northern Pakistan. Damage and deaths were also reported from Indian Administered Kashmir and eastern Afghanistan. The most severely affected region was in the epicentral area around Muzaffarabad in Pakistan Administered Kashmir. Reverse or thrust fault rupture on or near the Main Boundary Thrust of the Himalayas has been reported or observed from Chennari in the Jhelum River valley upstream of Muzaffarabad through to Muzaffarabad and over into the Kaghan valley as far north as Balakot, a distance of approximately 60 km. A notable feature of the effects of this earthquake was the asymmetric distribution of landslides across the fault rupture zone. On the downthrown or footwall side (to the southwest) landslide damage was relatively minor – the road from Manshera to Muzaffarabad was open to traffic within 8 hours of the earthquake and required the clearance of only one landslide. On the up-thrown or hanging wall side of the fault rupture zone (to the northeast) the road from Balakot to Kagan required the clearance of 253 landslides and took 24 days. These observations are consistent with the findings of recent strong motion studies.

Coesite in Himalayan eclogite and implications for models of India-Asia collision

Research Article| May 01, 2001 Coesite in Himalayan eclogite and implications for models of India-Asia collision P.J. O'Brien; P.J. O'Brien 1Bayerisches Geoinstitut, Universität Bayreuth, D-95440 Bayreuth, Germany Search for other works by this author on: GSW Google Scholar N. Zotov; N. Zotov 1Bayerisches Geoinstitut, Universität Bayreuth, D-95440 Bayreuth, Germany Search for other works by this author on: GSW Google Scholar R. Law; R. Law 2Geological Sciences, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061, USA Search for other works by this author on: GSW Google Scholar M.A. Khan; M.A. Khan 3Government College, Sargodha, Pakistan Search for other works by this author on: GSW Google Scholar M.Q. Jan M.Q. Jan 4National Centre of Excellence in Geology, University of Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan Search for other works by this author on: GSW Google Scholar Geology (2001) 29 (5): 435–438. https://doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(2001)029<0435:CIHEAI>2.0.CO;2 Article history received: 17 Aug 2000 rev-recd: 02 Jan 2001 accepted: 21 Jan 2001 first online: 02 Jun 2017 Cite View This Citation Add to Citation Manager Share Icon Share Facebook Twitter LinkedIn MailTo Tools Icon Tools Get Permissions Search Site Citation P.J. O'Brien, N. Zotov, R. Law, M.A. Khan, M.Q. Jan; Coesite in Himalayan eclogite and implications for models of India-Asia collision. Geology 2001;; 29 (5): 435–438. doi: https://doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(2001)029<0435:CIHEAI>2.0.CO;2 Download citation file: Ris (Zotero) Refmanager EasyBib Bookends Mendeley Papers EndNote RefWorks BibTex toolbar search Search Dropdown Menu toolbar search search input Search input auto suggest filter your search All ContentBy SocietyGeology Search Advanced Search Abstract Coesite, recognized petrographically and confirmed by in situ Raman microprobe spectroscopy, is reported from an eclogite from the Kaghan valley, Pakistan, and represents the first record of ultrahigh-pressure metamorphism in the Himalaya. The formation conditions of >27 kbar implied by the presence of coesite are supported by garnet-pyroxene- phengite barometry (27–29 kbar, 690–750 °C). If, as seems likely from previous field and geochronologic studies, the eclogites represent metamorphosed dikes, sills, and lava flows of Permian age within the granitic gneiss-metapelite-marble sequence of the Higher Himalayan crystalline nappes, then continental crust—the leading edge of the Indian plate— must also have been subducted to coesite-forming depths (90–100 km). This more than doubles previous depth estimates and, on the basis of available geochronological data for this area, requires average exhumation rates at least twice as fast (∼10 mm/yr) as previously imagined. A further implication, based on interpretations of deep seismic data, is that the present-day shallow angle of subduction of Indian plate lithosphere beneath Tibet represents a significant change from an initially much steeper angle. You do not have access to this content, please speak to your institutional administrator if you feel you should have access.

Glaucophane and barroisite eclogites from the Upper Kaghan nappe: implications for the metamorphic history of the NW Himalaya

Abstract This paper presents the results of a petrographical and mineral chemical study of glaucophane- and barroisite-bearing eclogites from the Upper Kaghan nappe in the Higher Himalayan Crystallines of the Pakistan Himalaya, and discusses the implications of the P-T path recorded in such rocks for the tectonic and metamorphic history of the NW Himalaya. The eclogites described here come from a previously undescribed outcrop at Gittidas, but belong to the same suite as the garnet-omphacite-phengite-quartz-rutile eclogites previously described elsewhere in the Upper Kaghan nappe. The metamorphic peak assemblage is garnet-omphacite-rutile-quartz in glaucophane eclogite and garnet-omphacite-zoisite-rutile±kyanite±phengite±ankerite in barroisite eclogite. Most samples contain a significant amount of amphibole, white mica and quartz. White mica may be present either as part of the peak assemblage (phengite) or as a retrogressive phase after kyanite (paragonite). Amphibole is later than the metamorphic peak assemblage and is barroisite in most samples, but in relatively Fe-rich eclogite it is glaucophane with significant Na in the A site, Ca in the M4 site and tetrahedral A1. Garnet displays strong prograde zoning in the barroisite eclogites, with Mg increasing and Fe decreasing from core to rim. The iron-rich core is crowded with mineral inclusions of the peak assemblage, but inclusions of earlier paragonite, green and blue-green amphibole were also found. Peak metamorphic conditions in the barroisite eclogites have been estimated at T = 610 ± 30 °C and P = 24 ± 2 kbar from Fe/Mg partition in garnet-omphacite pairs, and from the garnet-omphacite-phengite barometer. These values are close to the equilibration conditions estimated for the eclogites of the North Himalayan Tso-Morari Dome. Strong similarities between metamorphic evolution of the Upper Kaghan nappe and metamorphic evolution of the eclogite-bearing units of the Neelum valley just to the east of the Kaghan valley indicate that the eclogite occurrences of the Kaghan-Neelum area define an eclogite-bearing terrane of regional extent, which was subjected to high pressure metamorphism in middle Eocene times. A comparison of the metamorphic evolution recorded in the eclogites of the NW Himalaya with that of the granulitized eclogites recently discovered in the E Himalaya suggests the possibility of a Himalaya-wide eclogitic metamorphism of pre-Miocene age. Therefore, the main difference between the Higher Himalayan Crystalline nappes of the NW Himalaya and those of the E Himalaya appears to lie less in the early part of their metamorphic evolution than in the different P-T paths they followed during exhumation.

The Sapat mafic-ultramafic complex, Kohistan arc, North Pakistan

Abstract The Sapat layered complex, occupying the tectonic base of the Cretaceous Kohistan island arc, occurs in the immediate hanging wall of the Indus suture zone north of the Kaghan valley. Previously undescribed, much of the complex consists of gabbroic rocks, but in the basal part there are ultramafic cumulates (15 × &lt; 2 km) in direct tectonic contact with the Indian plate. In the central part, the complex can be divided into five zones. From the base these are: (1) homogeneous serpentinized dunites (350 m thick), (2) dunites with thin chromite layers (100 m), (3) thinly layered dunites-pyroxenites (30 m), (4) layered dunites-pyroxenites-gabbros (170 m) with chromite layers in the lower part, and (5) gabbros. The gabbroic rocks are amphibolitized and consist of a variety of lithologies ranging from troctolites to anorthosites, with local pyroxenite (± olivine) layers and horizons of olivine-rich ultramafics. These rocks are locally cut by pyroxene-rich pegmatites containing up to 45 cm long pyroxene crystals. Preliminary microprobe studies on the ultramafic rocks show that the clinopyroxene is Mg-Ca-rich diopside, and olivine has a forsterite content of 92 to 78, but in rare cases &gt; 95. The chromite displays high Cr No. (75–67) and low Fe 3+ /R 3+ (&lt;10). These data, especially the chromite analyses, are akin to those of ultramafic rocks of island arcs, including the Jijal complex, 80 km to the west. We propose that the Sapat complex formed the basal part of the Kohistan terrain and is related to arc magmatism. It has been metamorphosed under epidote amphibolite facies conditions.

First report of eclogites from the Himalayan belt, Kaghan valley (northern Pakistan)

First report of eclogites from the Himalayan belt, Kaghan valley (northern Pakistan)