Japanese Geographers Research Articles

LAND TRANSFORMATION AND RELATED ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGES

This symposium was the first attempt in the Association of Japanese Geographers to discuss the problems on large-scale land transformation and related environmental changes, which became not to be disregarded even in geomorphology. In 1980, the Working Group on the Man-Made Landforms and Land Transformation was organized in the Association for the promotion of systematic and comprehensive studies on such problems, which led us to organize this symposium. The following 10 papers were presented under 6 topics. T. TAMURA, H. YAMAMOTO and S. YOSHIOKA: National summary of recent studies on large-scale land transformation. A. MORIYAMA: Genetic approach to man-made landforms resulting from porcelain clay mining in the Seto Area. S. TANAKA and T. OKIMURA: Land transformation due to urbanization in the Rokko Mountains, Kobe, Kinki Metropolitan Area. T. YAMAKAWA: Land transformation attendant on urbanization in Western Kanagawa Prefecture. S. HIGASHI: Role of forest management in the exploitation of mountainous environment. T. TATEISHI: Coastal sand dunes historically inherited from planting for erosion control, a case of Shonai Sand Dunes. M. KUSAKA: Implications of ancient land transformation in the olden provinces of Settsu, Kawachi and Izumi. Y. AKAGI: Landforms resulting from iron sand mining in the Chugoku Mountains. K. KATSURAGI: Changes of social environment affected by dehydration of paddy fields and construction of a new port in the Imizu Plain, Toyama Prefecture. S. MEZAKI and K. KANEMURA: Land transformation and effects on sedimentation and coastal environment on Okinawa Island. The discussions by commentators and audience were focused on the following subjects. 1. Accumulation and management of quantitative data. 2. Role of geographical approach to land transformation. 3. Classification and evaluation of man-made landforms. 4. Measures against accelerated or catastrophic phenomena.

A STUDY ON MAPPING HYDROLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT AND ITS PROBLEMS

A great number of hydrological studies have recently been done and presented in various fields. If these achievements can be represented in the form of maps, their use will be of a remarkably wide range. The research group of hydrological map was organized in October, 1976 (replaced by the working group in April, 1979) as one of the commissions in the Association of Japanese Geographers to discuss how to map the hydrological environment. The summary of the commission activities is as follows. The regular meeting for research was held 23 times; the annual report, Researches on Hydrological Map was published twice (No. 1, 1977 and No. 2, 1978). Seven papers were presented for IGU-IHP Commission Symposium, 1980 IGC. The group also set up such subjects for study as “The definition of the map of hydrological environment and methods of mapping hydrological elements”, “Mapping of hydrological environment on a middle scale”, and “Mapping of hydrological environment on a large scale” and has been making researches in concrete work. The results of the study were presented in Studies on Mapping Hydrological Environment (Grant-in-aid for co-operative research (A), The Ministry of Education, Science and Culture, Japan 1980). The purpose of the present study is to attempt to decide methods of mapping hydrological environment. Before entering into the main subject, the author refers to the definition of the map of hydrological environment: the map reflects all kinds of hydrological phenomena around earth's surface presented by complex actions of natural factors and human impacts in relation to the earth's hydrological cycle. It is the most important work in mapping to select carefully proper factors for representing on a map from a large amount of information and to develop a method of representation as rational as possible. In other words, the legible representation of carefully selected elements of hydrological phenomena is the key to mapping hydrological environment. Hydrological phenomena are classified into three groups according to the situation in which the phenomena occur: one in the atmosphere, the second on the earth's surface and the last in the underground. The principal hydrological elements in the first group are precipitation, probable precipitation, rainfall intensity, evapotranspiration, potential evapotrans iration temperature, etc.; in the second, topography, river, lake, soil, vegetation, land use, etc.; in the last, hydro-geology, groundwater, etc. As it is impossible both in quality and in quantity to map the hydrological environment embracing all those phenomena. The description of the elements should be confined to the irreducible minimum and the most proper method of representation should be decided according to the object of the map. However, there still remain some problems such as, which scale to use in drawing base map, how to represent the distribution of groundwater use, and how many ranks to use in showing the different elements on the same map.

GEOGRAPHICAL LITERATURE IN JAPAN

This is the third in a series of reports on Japanese geographic research prepared in cooperation with the Association of Japanese Geographers (AJG). Like the two previous reports, which appeared in the August and November issues, it has been modified for the English-speaking readership of THE PROFESSIONAL GEOGRAPHER. However, unlike the previous articles, each of which aimed at providing data regarding Japanese research on specific geographic topics, this paper is intended to supply the reader with an inventory of those materials that will be needed for the conduct of research in Japan. —H. Jesse Walker, Member, U.S. National Committee, IGU.

RECENT RESEARCH IN JAPANESE GEOMORPHOLOGY

This is the second in a series of reports on Japanese geographic research prepared in cooperation with the Association of Japanese Geographers (AJG). Like the report on historical geography, which appeared in the August issue, this report on geomorphology has been modified for the English-speaking readership of THE PROFESSIONAL GEOGRAPHER. As an indication of the relative importance of geomorphology in Japanese geography, at the April 1979 annual meeting of the AJG in Tokyo 30 percent of the 138 papers presented were devoted to geomorphology.—H. Jesse Walker, Member, U.S. National Committee, IGU

HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY IN JAPAN∗

A regret frequently expressed at International Geographical Congresses concerns the lack of summary information about the nature of geographic research in the host country. During a discussion of this point with members of the Association of Japanese Geographers, the idea of publishing a series of reports on various aspects of Japanese research surfaced. The concept was later enthusiastically supported by the United States National Committee for the International Geographical Union. This first report, “Historical Geography in Japan,” has been modified for the benefit of the English-speaking readers of THE PROFESSIONAL GEOGRAPHER. Although the reports will be of particular interest to those planning to attend the 1980 IGC in Tokyo, they should prove of general interest as well.—H. Jesse Walker, Member, U.S. National Committee, IGU.

A STU8DY REPORT OF THE RESERCH GROUP ON URBAN GEOGRAPHY, A. J. G., 1974

The writer made a review on the research papers of urban geography written by Japanese geographers during the period of 1974. In a review of urban geography in Japan for 1972, K. Hattori pointed out that urban geography had assumed an aspect of “Urbanization Geography”, which was predominant in the 1974 papers. Most of the cities chosen for study were large cities and cities with the seat of prefectural office, while very few small cities were taken up. In this paper the writer deals with 48 articles, of which outlines are shown below; (1) Urban Geography in General : trend and review for studies of urban geography done in recent years (2) Urban Function : central management function o cities from the viewpoint of con-centration of office-workers or of branch offices, and the industrial bases of Japanese cities (3) Urban Areal Structure : functional regions based on interregional automobile flows, location of multi-storied buildings, and transformation of central business districts (4) Urban Trade : location of retail function in urban areas, isolated territories in trading areas, modern significance of central shopping districts, and modernization of shopping centers (5) Urban Industry: lumber shops in urban areas, and integrated industrial-residen tial areas (6) Urban Population : concentration, decentralization and natural increase of popu-lation in metropolitan areas (7) Urbanization : classification(positive or negative) and measurement of urbanization, urbanization of local and small cities, formation of megalopolis or conurbation, sprawling phenomena, theory on growth of urban area, urban space and environment, mechanism of the growth of residential area, the urban fringe of Mexico City, and study of CBD-ratio (8) Urban Problems : natural environment, urban transportation, land use, distribution of public nuisances, urban living environment, and optimum size of the city (9) others : cities from the viewpoints of historical core and DID, warehouse location in metropolies, newspaper circulation behavior in metropolis, and cities in developing countries of Asia

SYMPOSIUM: THE PROCEDURES AND PROBLEMS OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT

Symposium on the procedures and problems of the environmental impact assessment was held in cooperation with the Committee on the Environment Assessment of the Association of the Japanese Geographers. The speakers and the themes were as follows: (1) K. Nakaseko: Geological conditions and the environment assessment. (2) M. Kusaka: Assessment of geomorphological conditions in the city areas. (3) T. Kawamura: Assessment of climatic conditions. (4) Y. Hosono: Change of the hydrological environment due to urban development. (5) T. Nakanishi: Assessment of environment by the vegetation. (6) H. Sasaki: Change of green areas in the urban configurations. (7) M. Yoshida: Residential environment judged by the consiousness of residents. (d) Y. Mizoo: Assessment of sight-seeing and tourist resort planning. (9) H. Yoshikawa: On the system of environment assessment. The main problems pointed out are summarized in the following several items: (1) How can we sum up the results of assessment, which are different qualitatively? (2) We must take into consideration the human, social or economic conditions to the environmental assessment. How do we, however, determine or define the range of environment? (3) We shall have to make assessment individually, according to the scales of geographical phenomena. (4) How do we make assessment of future change: e.g. the change of ground water level or vegetation in the urban areas? Our knowledge about these changes is poor at present. (5) Lastly, how can geographers contribute to the policy decision through the assessment of environment?

Development of Urban Geography in Japan from the Viewpoint of the Growth of Urban Geographers

Three major periods in the development of urban geography and the growth in the number of urban geographers in Japan can be recognized: the first is from 1904 to 1929, the second is from 1930 to 1946, and the third from 1947 to the present.The first period was initiated by the studies of Professor N. Yamazaki, Tokyo University. This was then followed by the papers of M. Odauchi, K. Tanaka and T. Ogawa. Among these geographers, urban geography was not their specialization with the exception of M. Odauchi. Consequently, there were practically no urban specialists at this time.The second period can be subdivided into a prewar period and a wartime stagnation period in urban geographic research, The former period was started with the establishment of the Association of Japanese Geographers. The main trends in this period were morphological and quantitative analyses of urban area and the statistical analyses of urban population. There were many articles regarding urban areas in geography, but most of these articles were written by non-specialists. Geographers who concentrated their efforts on urban geography included S Kiuchi, Y. Ogasawara and K. Kagami in the latter part of the prewar period. However, the war brought about a stagnation in urban studies from about 1940 to 1946.The third period is the postwar period which was initiated by the studies on war-damaged cities by S Kiuchi, K. Inoki, E. Inami and K. Tanabe. Later, S Kiuchi published a seminal book entitled, Urban Geography, which greatly influenced the younger geographers and students. Many geographers began to specialize in this area of study as postwar interest in urbanization grew. The rapid growth can be seen by the eleven symposia on urban geography which have been held between 1953 and 1973 during the annual meetings of AJG. The studies by urban specialists cover the entire range of this field. In addition, studies on foreign cities have increased in recent years. The use of quantitative methods for urban studies has progressed recently.

FIFTY YEARS' DEVELOPMENT OF THE ASSOCIATION OF JAPANESE GEOGRAPHARS

The fiftieth anniversary of the Association of Japanese Geographers was celebrated on the 30th April, 1975 in Tokyo. On this occasion, the author delivered a memorial lecture on a historical overview of the development of the Association. The Association was established in 1925 for the purpose of promoting geographical research in Japan, only 49 members being then enrolled under the leadership of Professor Naomasa Yamasaki. Its inititial activities were to hold occasional meetings and to publish a monthly serial, “Chirigaku-Hyoron” (Geographical Review of Japan), mostly, in Japanese with English abstract. In the course of half a century since its establishment, the Association has continuously developed in its scale and activities. The number of members has increased up to 3000 including 50 foreign geographers. Among them, three foreign geographers, Prof. F. Ruellan, Prof. M. Schwind and Prof. H. Boesch were nominated as honorable members of the Association in recognitino of their eminent works in Japan as well as distinguished contributions to the Association at the time of the fiftieth anniversary. The Association now holds monthly discussion meetings, commission meetings and biannual large conferences with more than 500 attendants from all over Japan. In addition to the monthly serial, the Association publishes abstracts of papers submitted to the conferences, guide books of excursions, special issues of “Geographical Review of Japan”. More than 50 copies of the “Geographical Review of Japan” are sent to oversew geographical institutions in exchange. In the spring conference of 1975, 153 papers were read in eight sectionary meetings, a symposium on quantitative geography was held and five parties of excursions were organized.

CURRENT STUDIES ON HYDROLOGY IN JAPAN

This is a brief review of the geographers' contributions to hydrology in Japan made after 1969. The author had already published reviews in 19661) and 19682) on the same topic. A commission on hydrology was established in 1967 in the Association of Japanese Geographers (Nippon-Chiri-Gakkai). This commission (Chairman: Yokichi Mino-Ishikawa), corresponding to the Commission on IHD in IGU, stimulated many hydrologic and hydrographic studies in Japan. Taking this opportunity of issuing a special volume for hydrology in the Geographical Review of Japan (Chirigaku Hyoron), the author compiled a summary of the original articles on hydrology by geographers. The purposes of this paper is restricted only to show the current trend of hydrologic researches through published works without making any comments on item. Titles of all full papers published since 1968 to 1971, as well as short summaries and abstracts during this period are listed on the last pages of this volume. He expresses his sincere thanks for their kind collaboration to Messrs. Isamu Kayane, Shigemi Takayama, Tadashi Arai, Makoto Aramaki, Kazuki Mori, Noboru Hida and Masahiro Shoda. During this period, two attractive international conferences were organized and worked out by geographers. The first one was the International Conference on Land Subsidence3)4) in Tokyo in 1969 (President: Kiyoo Wadati, General Secretary: Soki Yamamoto) and the second was the Asian Regional Conference of the International Association of Hydrogeologists in Tokyo in 1971 (President: Soki Yamamoto). One book entitled “Water Circulation on Alluvial Fan”5) was published in 1971. This book shows a top stage of progress in the systems approach to hydrology and geography with various new technics, including tritium analysis and electric analog models. They discussed ground water balances in connection to surface water on the Kurobe Fan, Toyama Prefecture.

A REVIEW OF THE FACTOR-ANALYTIC STUDIES ON URBAN SYSTEMS FOR FIVE COUNTRIES

The use of quantitative methods has become popular among Japanese geographers, since they have a tradition of statistical analyses back to 1930's. In order to promote the knowledge of such methods, the attention is drawn to the possibilities offered by factor analysis. This analysis may provide an objective solution to the problem of urban geography such as a comparative study of urban systems in different countries. This paper reviews the comparability of urban systems extracted from factor-analytic studies done in five countries, namely the United States, Japan, England and Wales, India and Canada. These include studies by Price (1942), Yasuda (1959), Moser and Scott (1961), Hadden and Borgatta (1965), Ahmad (1965), King (1966), Yamaguchi (1967), and Ray and Murdie (1968). The author presents in the last section a summary of the application to Japan in 1967. His analysis of 189 cities used 50 variables such as area, population structure, population change, education, labour force status, industry and occupation, household size and composition, and journey to work. As a result, the first component (20.1%) was regarded as reflecting social status and the second component (16.4%) was related to urban economic base. The third component was closely associated with employment status of working population and the fourth component was strongly associated with urban centrality. The first four components altogether accounted for 59.6 % of the total variance. In conclusion, at least one thing which was common to the studies mentioned above, excluding the case of Ahmad, was the existence of socio-economic status level playing a predominantly discriminating role among cities. However, variables highly associated with this factor would explain the difference and similarity of its function within each urban system of the country studied.

CONTEMPORARY PROBLEMS OF GEOGRAPHICAL RESEARCHES IN JAPAN

Most universities of the World are under drastic change. The author believes that academic researches and education should independent of any social impacts, but they could not always be free from them. Modernization of Japan has been accomplished by Western civilization grafted on traditional Japanese culture. Present geographical studies generally follows the Western schools, but they have shown somewhat unbalanced development. Well-established sections are Geomorphology, Climatology, Hydrography, Economic geography, Rural and Urban settlement geography, and Historical geography; on the contrary to Biogeography, Political geography, Foreign regional studies and so on, are wished to be developed. Cartographic works are one of the best among other nations, but there are limited chairs for professors majored in Cartography. Specialisation gets deeper, and there is a need to bridge between various sections of geo-graphy and related sciences concerning region. Several good cooperation is, for example, nine Associations (Kyiu Gakkai Rengo) joint surveys on Islands, and Urban Research Association. (Toshigakkai) surveys on cities. Geographers of Europe and America have less acgaintances on Asia and most of them evaluate it with their own standards. Japanese and Asian geographers will see it with other ways. Though basic concepts and methods are internationally the same, regional minds brought up during long historic time and influenced by their milieu, would be different by each coun-tries and regions. Indigenous-oriented researches are so wished as to complete a regional study. The concurence of various minds will finish a “Global Geography”, which is different to a “World Geography” based on an unique view point, such as French “Geographie Universelle”. Comparative study (Vergleichende landerkunde) having a long tradition since Carl Ritter, must be reviewed in this connection. Prof. Lautensach's “Iberisch Halbinsel” and “Korea” is an example in the meaning of finding the author's insight on regions. Japanese geographers should promote studies of foreign areas not only for themselves, but for developing global studies as well. In recent 10 years, we have had an increasing numbers of regional studies of foreign areas; i. e. Southeast Asia, India, West Asia, parts of East Africa, Andes countries, parts of Brasil, and Antarctics. To our regret, there are less studies of China and Korea, on the con-trary to the prewar excellent contributions to these areas. Quantitative analysis of regions are expanding by younger generations who have studied in the United States. The primary development of quantitative methods was in 1930-40 in Japan, which had a strong attack by traditional geography; especially it was true in Japan where historical background and cutural diversity are complex. Though Japanese statistics are generally excellent, improvement of enumeration units, item classifications, and regional divisions are to be improved for quantitative analysis. Grid system for stocking geographic data is under preparation by the Prime Minister Statistical Bureau and the Geographical Survey Institute. Applied fields of geography are expanding for industrial location, city and regional plan-ning, administration boundary, irrigation and river control, resources and population problems, transportation facility, disaster prevention and so on. The author sees that between academic geography and so-called application, there are substantial differences: The latter requires de-cision for action which means a kind of political “determinism”, on the contrary to academic “possibilism” and methodological review. Notwithstanding these problems, academic geography is fruitful with application, and the latter gets more profit with theoretical studies.

Presidential Address delivered at the Spring Meeting of the Association of Japanese Geographers

This is the presidential address delivered at the general meeting held on the third of April in 1965. Dr. Ishikawa analysed the present situation of Japanese Geography putting special emphasis on methodology and expressed his hope to systematize geography.

GEOMORPHIC DEVELOPMENT OF THE DRAINAGE BASINS OF THE KISO AND THE YAHAGI, CENTRAL JAPAN

The Association of Japanese Geographers held a field symposium on “Geomorphic development of the drainage basins of the Kiso and the Yahagi Rivers” in October, 1963. Discussions at the symposium and the outline of the previous works on the geomorphic development of this area are summarized in this article. The drainage basins of the Kiso and the Yahagi Rivers and the Nobi Plain which is situated along the lower course of the Kiso River show various landforms molded in different geologic ages; erosional surfaces being in mountains, depositional surfaces of the Pliocene Seto Group in the middle course of these rivers, fluvial and marine terraces of the Pleistocene along the rivers and the inner margin of the plain, and fault scarps in mountains and even on terrace surfaces. Accordingly, this area has been considered as one of the standard regions in reserch of the geomorphic history of Japan. Although problems on correlation and process of the formation of the fluvial and marine terraces are discussed in this paper, a greater emphasis was put on the following subjects m the correlation of gravel beds of the Seto Group scattered in the whole region, the palaeogeography of the time when the Seto Group was deposited, the recognition and correlation of erosional surfaces and the process of the growth of fault scarps.

An Outline on Geographical Studies of Postwar Reclamation in Japan

Many geographers have been interested in the study of the areas of postwar reclamation. The subject has been changed in accordance with the development of the farming in such areas.In the first stage, from 1945 to 1948, the studies were mainly focused on methodology, the distribution of the newly-cultivated areas, and the role of geography. In the second stage, from 1949 to 1955, the studies were characterized by case studies of newly-cultivated areas, and a new tendency appeared aiming to show the farming types and the division of such areas. A symposium was organized by the Association of Japanese Geographers in 1955, and papers were contributed relating to physical conditions of newly-cultivated areas, the relation between pioneers and landownership, agricultural forms, and effects of clearing. Since then, the studies of the individual areas were inspired, and at the same time more extensive regions, embracing many newly-cultivated areas, came into the subject. This trend may suggest the possibility of classification of the areas into types with differentiated characters, based on the elements influencing the farming.Since 1958, cultivation by mechanical power was put into operation, and the study of pilot-farms and the study of farming types became the subjects of the geographical study of newly-reclaimed areas.

THE PRESENT STATUS OF URBANIZATION STUDIES IN JAPANESE ACADEMIC CIRCLES OF GEOGRAPHERS

Recently Japanese geographers have taken interest in urbanization studies to a considerable degree. The purposes of this study are to put the results of urbanization studies in order as well as to systematize them so as to recognize the present status and to examine a possible course of future urbanization studies. It is after World War II that the interest in urbanization studies increased among Japanese geographers, whose tendency is keeping pace with the development of urbanization in this country since the War. As to the concept of urbanization, some definitions were revealed, which may be classified into both the narrower sense stressing landscapes and the broader one laying emphasis on functions. Efforts have been made for establishing theories of mechanism causing the recognizable urbanizationn phenomena. At the present stage, studies are made along the line for an understanding of spatial and regional mechanism of urbanization, such as “centralized urbanization and decentralized urbanization” and “contiguous urbanization and leapfrog urbanization”, by means of its ecological process analyses. In order to understand the regional characteristics of urbanization in Japan, urbanization stages, comparison among suburban areas, characters as regions, and the like have also been studied concerning Tokyo-Yokohama region, Osaka-Kobe region, Nagoya region, Tohoku district and also Japan as a whole. For the future studies of urbanization the spatial or regional aspects are stressed, the ecological approaches are supported, and the establishment of principles of urbanization is postulated not only for an academic purpose but also for the purpose of social contributions as an applied phase of geography. As a conclusion through this study of recent literatures concerning urbanization, it should be necessitated to accumulate more case studies along the present direction of urbanization study as mentioned above.

崖を意味する地名

The difficulties of place name interpretation have long been recongnized by leading Japanese geographers. Underlying this problem is the fact that place names may be rooted in natural as well as cultural or man-made phenomena, thus introducing elements of great complexity and diversity. Furthermore, it frequently occurs that place names which may have been fresh in the beginning, later become fossil names often unfamiliar to modern ears. Most certainly, another complicating factor is the infiltration of Ainu, Korean and other foreign terms into the language. On the other hand, it appears that certain names may have their origins in surely local dialects frequently unintelligible to outsiders. Finally, the existence of ateji deserves to be emphasized as one of the major complicating factors in Japanese place name interpretation. With different Chinese characters pronounced alike and applied to the same place names, it becomes quite difficult to reinterpret such names. When binding the significance of place names to the character meanings, far-fetched interpretations often result.In studying the complicated place names of Japan, a grouping based upon certain significant criteria may be employed. Of primary interest in this paper are those place names associated with topography, more particularly, those which concern “escarpment.”Not only has the escarpment remarkable topographic characteristics but it is often associated with cultural aspects of significance to human life, for example, its functions as a barrier to communication as well as a limitation upon land utilization. Thus by its very nature, the escarpment often attracts the attention of people and is utilized as a point of origin in the development of place names. Below are ten items concerned with place names related to the topography of escarpments. Various ateji are used for these names.1. “Kura” and “Kake”Kura has two meanings. By kura is meant a mountain on one hand and a valley on the other. It often occurs that the mountain or valley having the name of kura is not a common type of either, but has conspicuous escarpments, crumbled valleys or expanses of exposed bare rock. Kake is also applied to the escarment. Many of the mountains termed kurakake have escarpments in them.2. “Mama”Mama is another of the names derived from the escarpment. It is distributed throughout Eastern Japan, southern Kwanto being its center, and is a good example of the necessity to be concerned with the pronounciation rather than the meaning of Chinese characters associated with it.3. “Kue” and “tsue”These are found in large numbers particularly in Chugoku, Shikoku and Kyushu. Both terms mean “crumbling”.4. “Hake” (Hakke, Bake, Bakke) and “Hoki” (Hokki)Hake and others of its group ……hakke, bake and bakke……are distributed over Eastern Japan particularly in the surroundings of Tokyo. Hoki (hokki) is a fossil word meaning “escarpment” and is found mainly in Western Japan especially in Shikoku and Kyushu.5. “Haba”It is found in the Nobi Plain and in areas to the east of it.6. “Nagi”, “Kama” and “Nuke”These are often applied to such narrow valleys as radiating valleys on the slopes of a volcano or escarpments of horseshoe type. In addition kama is widely applied to common escarpment or cave topography.7. “Gare”, “Zare” and “Zore”Often these are also applied to steep slopes or escarpments having many crumbled rocks and walls. They are distributed all over Japan.8. “Maku-iwa”

The Regoin near the Old watercourse of the River Hokura in the Plain of Takada brought under Cultivation in Middle Ages

In the plain of Takada can be traced an old watercourse of the Hokura about five kilometers in length. What characterize this old watercourse are free meandering and natural banks, running on both sides of it and higher than the level by one meter or two with fields and hamlets on them. A long succession of fine paddy-fields stretehes on this old course of the river, which were brought under cultivation in middle ages. (Especially, it is the case with the lower course of the river.)In the article two of those examples, Matsuhashi and Funatsu in the village of Honda are dealt.[The author made a lecture on other such examples, Honda-Enokii and Katatsu, at the autumnal meeting of Association of Japanese Geographers last year, and explained why the region should be supposed to have been cultivated in Middle Ages, also explaining its characteristics. The details are to be mentioned in next number.]

Geographic Regions in Korea

G EOGRAPHIC diversity is a reality in Korea. The different parts of the peninsula have different physical characters;' the successive waves of settlement and subsequent local developments resulted in the diverse human geography. Throughout much of Korea's history the central government was weak, and the eight political divisions, usually called do or provinces, had considerable local autonomy.2 In the three decades before 1945 the Japanese modified some of the regionalism in Korea, by building railroad lines and highways and by creating a strong government with centralized political and economic control.3 The 3 8th parallel, demarcating the American and Soviet occupation zones, imposes a new kind of boundary. This arbitrary line cuts across the grain of the country and thus across administration lines, which, developed over a long period of history, usually followed natural features.4 However, in a broad way, there are marked differences between north and south, between the Soviet-backed democratic Republic of and the United Nations-approved and United States-recognized Republic of Korea. The geographic regional divisions of have been treated at some length by Japanese geographers and others.5 Two recent European regional studies merit attention. In his book Korea V. T. Zaichikov stresses that variety is the keynote of Korean geography.6 He attributes this circumstance in part to Korea's transitional position between the continent of Asia and insular Japan. He notes the contrast between the west side of the peninsula, facing the Yellow Sea, and the east side, facing the Japan Sea. The northwest, according to Zaichikov, has been exposed to a profound Chinese influence; the southeast has felt the impact of the Japanese. The mountains, which occupy two-thirds of the area, have in recent times become of importance for their forest, hydroelectric, and mineral resources. The densely populated plains are the granaries; on them are grown three-fourths