BackgroundDespite the hazardous nature of rice farming, limited evidence exists regarding farmers’ knowledge, attitudes, and practices (KAP) toward accident prevention, and no standardized instrument is currently available to measure these dimensions in Vietnam or comparable contexts. This study aimed to develop and validate a psychometrically sound instrument for assessing rice farmers’ KAP related to occupational accident prevention.MethodsInstrument development and validation were carried out in three stages. First, an initial item pool was generated through an extensive review of existing literature. Second, content validity was established through expert consultation involving professionals in agriculture, occupational health, and public health. Third, a pilot study was conducted with 168 rice farmers in Thai Binh Province, Vietnam, to evaluate the instrument’s psychometric properties.ResultsExploratory factor analysis identified 20 items across five factors in the knowledge domain, nine items forming a single factor for attitudes, and 17 items grouped into four factors for practices, explaining 85.8%, 43.8%, and 72.3% of the total variance, respectively. Confirmatory factor analysis supported these structures, demonstrating satisfactory model fit across domains. The instrument exhibited high internal consistency, with Cronbach’s alpha values ranging from 0.894 to 0.969 for knowledge, 0.833 for attitudes, and 0.805 to 0.933 for practices.ConclusionThe validated instrument provides a reliable and valid measure of rice farmers’ knowledge, attitudes, and practices concerning occupational accident prevention. It offers a robust foundation for future research, monitoring, and targeted interventions aimed at improving safety behaviors and reducing injury risks among agricultural workers.

This study focused on developing the Religious Life Contentment Scale (RLCS), a reliable instrument designed to assess individuals' contentment with their religious lives. The scale development began with formulating an operational definition of the construct, followed by qualitative data collection via open-ended questions to create an initial item pool. After expert review by five specialists, the pool was reduced from 45 to 15 items. Scale structure was then determined using three independent samples. Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) on the first sample (n1=305) confirmed a robust, one-dimensional structure composed of seven items, which accounted for 62.52% of the total variance. Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) using the second sample (n2=111) further validated the structure, demonstrating excellent model fit (χ2/df=1.057, CFI=0.99, NFI=0.98, RMSEA=0.020). To establish criterion validity, the RLCS scores from the third sample (n3=327) showed significant positive correlations with the Adult Life Satisfaction Scale, the Ok-Religious Attitude Scale, and the General Life Satisfaction Scale. Furthermore, hierarchical regression analysis demonstrated that the RLCS uniquely accounted for 35% of the variance in religious attitude (R2=0.350). Finally, reliability was strongly supported by the scree plot and a high Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of 0.889. Collectively, these reliability and validity analyses provide strong evidence that the RLCS is a robust and reliable instrument for measuring contentment in religious life.

This study aims to develop an instrument to measure the intercultural competence (IC) of English majors in a formal, interculturally embedded English-language program in Vietnam. To do this, we implemented measures to prepare the item pool and validate the IC instrument. Using a self-report approach, the initial 38-item instrument was verified through exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), with sample sizes of 274 and 212, respectively, in each phase. The result was a finalized 20-item IC scale with four factors: knowledge of one's own culture; knowledge of other cultures and intercultural communication; attitudes (openness, respect, willingness to talk to people from other cultures); and skills (interpreting/relating, analyzing/evaluating). The measurement model exhibited good fit indices (Chi-square/df = 1.62, CFI = 0.96, TLI = .95, RMSEA = 0.05, PCLOSE = 0.26) and acceptable reliability and validity. Hence, the recently developed scale is deemed legitimate and dependable for implementation in the given Vietnamese higher education contexts.

Older adults engage in learning for a variety of reasons, often extending to learning about technology. In education, technology proficiency can enable older teachers to leverage technology in the classroom, resulting in positive teacher and student outcomes. However, several barriers and equity issues appear to hinder the integration of technology among Filipino older teachers. This paper argues that providing diverse technology learning strategies can effectively support a considerable segment of this cohort. Hence, this study aims to explore technology learning clusters among teachers aged 50-60 years from Pampanga, Philippines. A two-step procedure was employed, where 13 older teachers were initially invited to a semi-structured interview for the purpose of item pooling. The generated items were used in a Q-methodology study involving 20 older teachers from public and private basic education levels. Q-sort data were subjected to agglomerative hierarchical cluster analysis using the Ward method and squared Euclidean distance. Results from the hierarchical cluster analysis revealed two distinct typologies of older teachers: Self-Induced Technology Learners and Scaffold-Induced Technology Learners, indicating possible technology learning variations that can be tailored to address specific concerns. This study offers implications for ensuring an effective management of older teachers’ multifaceted learning approaches in the post-pandemic setting.

Most volunteer motivation scales are based on Western sport events, yet China’s increasing role as a host necessitates investigation of a context-specific measure. This study develops and validates a scale to assess volunteer motivation at Chinese major sport events. An initial item pool was derived from a literature review and a focus group discussion. A sample of 838 volunteers from the 2022 Hangzhou Asian Games was utilized. The data were randomly divided into two subsets: one for exploratory factor analysis (n = 419) and the other for confirmatory factor analysis (n = 419). The results identified a nine-factor model and supported its validity and reliability. The study contributes to the existing body of knowledge by (a) identifying virtual social interaction as a new volunteer motivation, (b) introducing value as a context-specific factor that combines national pride and altruism, and (c) expanding the conceptualization of sport enthusiasm to include individuals with little prior sport experience.

Psychometric scales are foundational to market research, yet their development is traditionally resource-intensive, slow, and prone to cognitive and cultural bias. Item generation, the stage where abstract constructs are translated into candidate measures, is especially demanding. This paper introduces a methodological framework for integrating generative artificial intelligence (AI) into item generation, illustrated through a proof-of-concept study on the entrepreneurial mindset. We outline a structured human–AI workflow that combines large language model outputs with critical researcher oversight at key decision points. The process demonstrates how AI can rapidly expand item pools, reduce redundancy, and surface alternative phrasings, while expert validation safeguards theoretical fidelity and conceptual clarity. Our framework is both rigorous and adaptable. It provides detailed replication guidance, highlights ethical and practical considerations, and identifies how researchers can transparently document AI use. By showing how AI-assisted item generation can enhance efficiency without compromising validity, this paper rethinks scale development methods for an era where market research must be both conceptually robust and responsive to fast-changing contexts.

This study aimed to develop and validate the Design Thinking Skills Perception Scale (DTSPS) to assess high school students' perceptions of their design thinking (DT) skills. An exploratory sequential mixed-methods design was adopted, integrating qualitative and quantitative approaches. In the qualitative phase, semi-structured interviews were conducted with 15 students (Grades 9–12) to explore their views on empathy, problem identification, creative ideation, prototyping, solution orientation, and teamwork. Thematic analysis revealed empathy and teamwork as essential, while prototyping and testing were challenging due to limited experience. These insights guided the initial item pool. In the quantitative phase, data were collected from 208 students in Central Anatolia. Exploratory and Confirmatory Factor Analyses confirmed a six-dimensional structure, explaining 64% of the total variance. The scale demonstrated strong convergent and discriminant validity, high internal consistency (Cronbach’s α = .73–.88; McDonald’s ω = .77–.91), and measurement invariance across gender and grade levels. Scores range from 20 to 100, with higher scores indicating stronger DT skill perceptions. The scale can be administered individually or in groups, and provides both total and sub-dimension scores. The DTSPS is a reliable and valid instrument offering insights into students' 21st-century skills, including creativity, collaboration, and problem-solving. It addresses a critical gap in DT education by offering a standardized measure for high school students. The findings suggest that the scale can guide educators in supporting students’ development of DT competencies. Future research should validate the DTSPS in more diverse contexts and explore its integration into digital learning environments.

The purpose of the study was to develop a self-administered screening tool to assist case managers, primary care physicians, and other clinicians in quickly and accurately identifying patients with complex health needs who require a definitive and detailed case management evaluation. In addition to medical and psychiatric items, this tool incorporates multiple social determinants of health (SDOH), known to add to clinical complexity. This instrument is most appropriate for identifying patients with high complexity in the primary care sector. Due to the abundance of such patients with high biopsychosocial complexity and costs of treating these patients, this tool can select those patients at greatest need for more detailed and comprehensive evaluation and treatment planning to identify and address the patient's barriers to health improvement. Potential participants were recruited from medical, psychiatric, and addiction outpatient and inpatient settings at a large metropolitan medical center. In Phase 1 of the study, a pool of potential screening items was drawn from several sources: the self-rated and interviewer-rated Patient Centered Assessment Method (PCAM; Pratt et al., 2015), the INTERMED self-assessment instrument (IMSA; Van Reedt Dortland et al., 2017), and additional items generated by one of the authors (S.A.F.). Forty participants completed this phase. Statistical analyses yielded a homogeneous scale with a smaller number of items. The screening instrument (Health Complexity Screener [HCS]) was then correlated with the criterion measure, the Value-Based Integrated Case Management Complexity Assessment Grid (VB-ICM-CAG; Kathol et al., 2018) with 35 participants, resulting in a receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis. Sixteen items were selected from a larger item pool based on item total correlations. This instrument was then correlated with the gold standard VB-ICM-CAG, and the internal consistency reliability was assessed (standardized coefficient alpha of .892). The VB-ICM-CAG criterion measure was dichotomized at the median value. An ROC curve analysis produced a cut score on the Screener that best represented the tradeoff between an elevated proportion of true positive (TP) rates above the median and a low proportion of false positive (FP) rates. The summary finding of predictive accuracy or area under the curve (AUC) was .83 (p =.001), with a TP rate of .81 and a FP rate of .21. These data suggest a screening instrument with acceptable psychometric characteristics. For patients of Primary Care Clinics, Mental Health Clinics, and/or Behavioral Health Providers, the HCS is an efficient way to screen all new patients, quickly identifying those who need additional case management assessment and/or assistance to follow their provider's treatment plan. For patients in facility care (e.g., inpatient, residential treatment facility, and skilled nursing facility), this screening tool would augment the discharge planning process by quickly identifying patients at high risk of readmission due to barriers to following the discharge plans. For insurance case managers, this tool would be an efficient way for intake coordinators to effectively screen and identify members for complex case management versus those that would benefit from less intensive case management services.

Purpose: The shadow-test approach to computerized adaptive testing (CAT) ensures content validity in health professions examinations but may suffer from poor item pool utilization in variable-length designs, increasing operational costs and security risks. This study aimed to address this challenge by developing algorithms that enhance the sustainability of shadow CAT in variable-length design.Methods: A simulation study was conducted to evaluate 3 proposed modifications of the a-stratification method designed to improve item pool utilization. These methods, which integrated randomesque selection and multiple-form strategies, were compared with 2 baseline algorithms within a variable-length shadow CAT framework. Performance was assessed in terms of measurement precision, pool utilization, and test efficiency.Results: The proposed modifications significantly outperformed the baseline methods across all measures of item pool utilization and exposure control. The most effective method (Modification 2) reduced the proportion of unused items from 35.6% to 5.0% and produced more uniform item exposure rates. These substantial gains in operational sustainability were achieved while maintaining measurement precision comparable to the baseline methods.Conclusion: The proposed algorithms effectively mitigate poor item pool utilization in shadow CAT under variable-length design. This enhanced framework provides a robust, secure, and sustainable solution for high-stakes adaptive assessments in the health professions that remain content-valid, precise, and operationally efficient.

Introduction Globally, breastfeeding duration often falls short of recommendations, partly due to women becoming pregnant while still nursing. Although breastfeeding during pregnancy and tandem breastfeeding are supported, these practices lack widespread acceptance. Assessing women’s attitudes towards these practices is essential for promoting sustained breastfeeding, yet no standardized tool currently exists for this purpose. Objective This study aimed to develop a scale to evaluate women’s attitudes toward breastfeeding during pregnancy and tandem breastfeeding. Method An initial item pool was developed and refined using the Davis Technique. The scale was tested through two pilot studies (each with 100 participants), followed by a main study with 318 participants. The scale’s psychometric properties were assessed through validity and reliability analyses. Results and Conclusion The final scale is a five-point Likert-type instrument, explaining 50.01% of the total variance across two factors (breastfeeding during pregnancy and tandem breastfeeding) with 13 items. It demonstrated strong internal consistency with a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.87. BJMS, Vol. 24 No. 04 October’25 Page : 1228-1236

Development and Validation of a Health Measure for Down Syndrome.

This study aimed to develop and validate the behavioral intention scale for pulmonary rehabilitation with traditional Chinese medicine in COPD patients (BISPTCM-PR-COPD), based on the extended theory of planned behavior. Following the COSMIN framework, the scale was developed through literature review, semi-structured interviews, and expert consultations. A preliminary item pool was refined using item analysis and content validity evaluation. Psychometric testing was conducted in 2 patient samples. Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) were performed to determine the factor structure. Reliability was assessed via internal consistency, split-half reliability, and test–retest reliability (ICC). Convergent validity was examined using composite reliability (CR) and average variance extracted (AVE). The final scale contained 26 items across 5 dimensions: basic knowledge, attitudes, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control, and behavioral intention. EFA supported a 5-factor solution, explaining 68.9% of the variance. CFA demonstrated acceptable model fit (χ2/df = 2.259, RMSEA = 0.075, IFI = 0.941, TLI = 0.933, CFI = 0.941, GFI = 0.822). Reliability was strong, with Cronbach α = 0.951, split-half reliability = 0.883, and test–retest ICC = 0.927 (95% CI: 0.86–0.97). Content validity was satisfactory (S-CVI = 0.933). Convergent validity was supported, with CR values between 0.735 and 0.973 and AVE values between 0.362 and 0.901. Notably, the basic knowledge domain showed lower AVE (0.362), suggesting item heterogeneity. The BISPTCM-PR-COPD is a reliable and valid instrument for assessing COPD patients’ intentions to participate in TCM-based pulmonary rehabilitation. It can serve as both a research tool and a clinical screening instrument to identify low-scoring domains, thereby guiding targeted education and support strategies and facilitating more effective implementation of TCM pulmonary rehabilitation.

BackgroundWith the acceleration of population aging, identifying and addressing the unmet assistance needs of home-dwelling older adults has become increasingly important. This study aimed to develop and validate a reliable and practical assessment tool to identify such needs.MethodsA descriptive qualitative study was conducted using semi-structured interviews with home-dwelling older adults in two communities in Wuhan, China. Based on the qualitative findings and literature review, an initial item pool was developed, followed by expert consultation to construct a draft scale. A cross-sectional survey was then conducted in communities across four central Chinese cities. Item analysis and psychometric testing were performed to finalize the scale.ResultsThe finalized scale consists of 27 items across four dimensions: daily assistance, health maintenance, visitation and communication, and social interaction. A total of 380 older adults participated in the study, with 170 used for item screening and 210 for validation. Confirmatory factor analysis showed good model fit (CFI= 0.951, TLI = 0.946, RMSEA = 0.068). Standardized factor loadings ranged from 0.67 to 0.94. The scale demonstrated excellent internal consistency, with Cronbach’s α ranging from 0.943 to 0.968, and met all reliability and validity standards.DiscussionThe developed scale has sound psychometric properties and is a reliable tool for assessing the unpaid assistance needs of home-dwelling older adults. It holds promise for guiding community service planning, public welfare resource allocation, and policy development in the context of population aging.

This study developed and validated the Cognitive Load Scale for AI-assisted L2 Writing (CL-AI-L2W), an instrument designed to measure the unique cognitive demands of human-AI collaborative writing. As generative AI becomes integral to second language (L2) composition, understanding its impact on cognitive processes is critical. Using a mixed-methods approach grounded in cognitive writing theory and human-AI interaction research, an initial item pool was refined through expert feedback and interviews. An Exploratory Factor Analysis (N = 241) on a 35-item draft scale revealed a four-factor structure. A subsequent Confirmatory Factor Analysis (N = 305) confirmed this structure with excellent model fit. The final 18-item scale measures four distinct dimensions of cognitive load: (1) Prompt Management, (2) Critical Evaluation, (3) Integrative Synthesis, and (4) Authorial Core Processing. The scale demonstrated excellent internal consistency and strong criterion-related validity through significant correlations with writing anxiety, self-efficacy, and perceived mental effort. As the first validated instrument of its kind, the CL-AI-L2W offers a crucial tool for advancing writing theory and informing pedagogy in AI-enhanced learning environments.

BackgroundThe growing incorporation of telenursing into the conventional healthcare system has raised urgent ethical and legal questions concerning the scope and standards of nursing practice. As nursing expands beyond traditional in-person care into digitally mediated environments, the lack of a legal framework in South Korea presents challenges to protecting patient rights and ensuring professional accountability.AimThis study aims to support the development of a regulatory framework for telecare nursing by identifying and prioritizing key legislative challenges affecting professional autonomy and ethical care delivery.Research designA two-round Delphi technique was employed.Participants and research contextA panel of twelve experts in nursing, health law, and digital health, each with over ten years of professional experience, participated. An initial set of 16 legislative items was developed through content analysis of legal documents and guidelines and reviewed by two subject-matter experts. Through iterative expert consultation, the item pool was refined and expanded to 24 statements for use in the Delphi process.Ethical considerationsThe study was approved by the institutional review board. Informed consent was obtained, and confidentiality was maintained throughout.ResultsEight items met all consensus criteria (necessity and feasibility ≥4.0; ≥80% agreement), including data security, documentation standards, identity verification, nurse certification, and informed consent. Seven ethically significant items such as scope of practice, liability, and reimbursement lacked feasibility consensus, suggesting major implementation barriers. Nine items were considered lower priority. The panel also highlighted three preparatory tasks: building public consensus, forming a multistakeholder steering committee, and legally recognizing nursing roles in telecare.ConclusionsLegislative priorities for ethical telecare were identified, though feasibility gaps indicate challenges to implementation. Legal frameworks should uphold ethical principles while supporting information governance, patient-centeredness, and professional empowerment. These findings offer timely guidance for integrating telecare into nursing practice and enhancing patient trust.

The aim of this study is to develop a measurement tool that can reliably and validly measure adolescent individuals’ attitudes toward healthy eating. The study group consisted of 1,006 individuals, including 495 males and 511 females, aged between 11 and 17 years. In this study, an exploratory sequential design was applied. A semi-structured interview form was used to create the item pool, and compositions were written. The “Davis Technique” was employed to assess the content validity of the items. For data analysis, SPSS 25.0 was used for EFA and reliability analysis, and Lisrel 8.7 was utilized for CFA. Based on the result of EFA, a structure consisting of 4 factors and 18 items was formed. The total variance explained is 59.05. According to CFA analysis, factor loadings range from .43 to .81, and X2/df = 1.65, RMSEA = .040 were found. Furthermore, the NFI, NNFI, PNFI, CFI, IFI, GFI, AGFI, PGFI, and RFI fit indices were found to be excellent and within the good range. In the analysis of the lower and upper groups of the scale (27%), statistically significant differences were observed in all items (p < .01). To test the reliability of the scale, Cronbach’s Alpha, Spearman-Brown (Split-half), and Guttman Lambda-6 coefficients were examined. The scale sub-dimension correlations ranged from .526 to .129. In conclusion, the developed scale demonstrates that it can validly and reliably measure adolescents’ attitudes toward healthy eating.

BackgroundPeople often avoid and try to stay ignorant of the negative aspects of meat production and consumption. When asked, people justify their meat consumption by emphasizing the necessity of meat for health, its desirable taste, naturalness, and normality. Relevant measures were developed to measure how much individuals rely on meat-eating justifications. Thus, the current work aims to translate and adapt the 4Ns scale by Piazza et al. (Appetite 91:114–128, 2015) and the Meat-eating Justifications Scale (MEJ) by Rothgerber (Psychol Men Masc 14(4):363–375, 2013) to Turkish to enable theoretical and applied studies of meat-eating in Turkish.MethodsThe relevant measures are translated and adapted to Turkish by expanding the item pool. The data of the translated measures and other relevant variables is collected between May 22 and December 31, 2022 (N = 520). The sample is divided into two parts: the first subsample is used to conduct Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA), and the other is used to conduct Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA). Finally, a correlation matrix is created with the finalized versions of the meat-eating justification measures and other variables of interest.ResultsEFA for the 4Ns revealed a four-factor solution aligning with the original theoretical framework. Since the original measure accepted a single-factor solution, the current work improved on the original by reworking the low-loading items and introducing culture-specific items. After decisions about certain items, CFA is conducted, which indicated good fit (χ2(98) = 193.4, p < .05, CFI = .96, RMSEA = .061, [CI = .048, .074]), internal consistency reliability (Cronbach’s α = .95, McDonald’s ω_total = .95) and test–retest reliability (.92). EFA for MEJ indicated an eight-factor solution, where a subscale was discarded. CFA showed good fit (χ2(224) = 435.9, p < .05, CFI = .945, RMSEA = .06, [CI = .052, .069]), internal consistency reliability (Cronbach’s α = .89, McDonald’s ω_total = .91) and test–retest reliability (.89).ConclusionCross-cultural adaptation and validation of the meat-eating justification scales enable a better theoretical understanding of the psychology of meat-eating. This is demonstrated by replicating the strong associations between meat-eating, its justifications, social dominance orientation, speciesism, and masculinity in a different cultural context. This understanding is essential for prevention and intervention efforts to reduce meat consumption.

The Collaboration scales developed in previous research have been designed predominantly for university students, teachers, or organizational contexts. This study developed and validated a Collaboration Skills Scale for high school students within the Twenty-First Century Skills (TCS) framework. An initial item pool of 230 items from eight collaboration scales was refined to 53 items after content validity assessment and a pilot test with 45 students. An exploratory factor analysis conducted with 655 students from 16 schools in Punjab, Pakistan, refined the scale to 17 items distributed across five factors: communication, team support, learning orientation, participation, and conflict resolution. A confirmatory factor analysis with 1,155 students from 28 schools subsequently validated the factor structure which demonstrated an acceptable model-data fit. The scale demonstrates strong reliability and validity for assessing high school students' collaboration skills. It offers educators, policymakers, and curriculum developers a robust tool to monitor collaboration competencies and align educational practices with the TCS framework.

The aim of the present study was the construction and validation of the peace of mind scale for older adults of the Pakistani Muslim population. This research comprised three different studies. Study one consisted of three phases. In Phase I of study I, an item pool through semi-structured interviews, literature review, and expert opinion was generated (inductively and deductively). In Phase II, a pilot study was done to check the suitability and relevancy of items. In Phase III, the final item pool was administered on the purposive sample of the general Muslim population both men (n = 165) and women (n = 148) above the age of 60years (N = 313) to run an exploratory factor analysis. As a result of exploratory factor analysis (EFA), four-factor structures consisting of 21 items with a cumulative variance of 50.48 were obtained (α = .78). The four factors were named as religious domain (α = .89), political domain (α = .81), personal domain (α = .74), and family domain (α = .80). In study II, confirmatory factor analysis was run on the data of 200 samples to confirm the obtained four-factor structure. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) resulted in an excellent model fit for the four-dimensional factor structure already obtained and established through EFA. In study III, the convergent validity of the scale was established on a separate independent sample (N = 120). Results yielded evidence of convergent validity as gratitude, and religiosity had a significant positive correlation with peace of mind in older adults, and smartphone addiction and rumination had a significant negative correlation with peace of mind in older adults. Moreover, the limitations, suggestions, and implications of the study were discussed.

ABSTRACT Beliefs about nonhuman animal emotions influence a wide range of attitudes and behaviors that are impactful on human–animal interaction and animal welfare. However, research in this area lacks a dedicated, psychometrically validated scale to assess such beliefs. The present research aimed to develop and validate the Beliefs about Animal Emotions Scale (BAES), a multidimensional instrument for assessing people’s beliefs about the emotional capacity and experience of animals. In study 1, exploratory factor analysis (n = 363, United States) of an initial item pool yielded a 3-factor, 23-item structure reflecting (1) beliefs about the complexity and authenticity of animal emotions, (2) the extent to which such beliefs depend on animals’ human similarity, and (3) the moral relevance of animal emotions. These subscales demonstrated good reliability (α = 0.85–0.94). In study 2, confirmatory factor analysis in a United Kingdom sample (n = 474) supported the three-factor structure with adequate model fit (χ 2/df = 2.53; TLI = 0.96, CFI = 0.96, RMSEA = 0.06). In study 3, two additional US samples (ns = 94, 111) completed the BAES alongside existing psychological measures to test scale validity. BAES subscales exhibited large correlations with belief in animal minds (rs = 0.53–0.58), providing evidence of convergent validity. Correlations with social desirability, moral expansiveness, affective empathy, and anthropomorphism were generally small or nonsignificant, supporting discriminant validity. All three subscales were also significantly associated with attitudes about animal use (rs = 0.47–0.61), supporting criterion validity. Across three studies, the BAES demonstrated stable structure and psychometric integrity and shows promise to provide a validated tool for future research regarding how beliefs about animal emotions impact ethical judgment, behavior, policy engagement, and animal welfare practices and outcomes.