Sanitation Issues Research Articles

Hydrogeology and management of freshwater lenses on atoll islands: Review of current knowledge and research needs

On atoll islands, fresh groundwater occurs as a buoyant lens-shaped body surrounded by saltwater derived from the sea, forming the main freshwater source for many island communities. A review of the state of knowledge of atoll island groundwater is overdue given their susceptibility to adverse impacts, and the task to address water access and sanitation issues within the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals framework before the year 2030. In this article, we review available literature to summarise the key processes, investigation techniques and management approaches of atoll island groundwater systems. Over fifty years of investigation has led to important advancements in the understanding of atoll hydrogeology, but a paucity of hydrogeological data persists on all but a small number of atoll islands. We find that the combined effects of buoyancy forces, complex geology, tides, episodic ocean events, strong climatic variability and human impacts create highly dynamic fresh groundwater lenses. Methods used to quantify freshwater availability range from simple empirical relationships to three-dimensional density-dependent models. Generic atoll island numerical models have proven popular in trying to unravel the individual factors controlling fresh groundwater lens behaviour. Major challenges face the inhabitants and custodians of atoll island aquifers, with rising anthropogenic stresses compounded by the threats of climate variability and change, sea-level rise, and some atolls already extracting freshwater at or above sustainability limits. We find that the study of atoll groundwater systems remains a critical area for further research effort to address persistent knowledge gaps, which lead to high uncertainties in water security issues for both island residents and surrounding environs.

The Bioclimatic Performance of Towns and Settlements as Defined by Byzantine Building Codes

The Byzantine Building Codes aimed at defining in a very precise manner the way in which settlements and towns were built within the boundaries of the Byzantine Empire. Consequently, they contained rules that defined the front, side and rear distances between buildings of different uses, the number and dimensions of the windows, the depth and distances of the projections, etc. Many of these limitations and rules were mainly derived from issues of sanitation, privacy and views. Nevertheless, in many parts of the Codes, there is reference to the achievement of acceptable daylighting and ventilation conditions.This primary aim of this paper is to investigate the bioclimatic performance of the built environment, which was shaped based on these building codes, in terms of insolation, shading and daylighting, as well as air circulation and ventilation. The findings of the study will provide information concerning the bioclimatic performance of both the urban open spaces and the interior living spaces of buildings in Byzantine towns and settlements, whose form derived from Byzantine Building Codes.

Surface water in temporary humanitarian settlements

In the Humanitarian Innovation Fund Gap Analysis for water, sanitation, and hygiene issues, field staff identified environmental management of surface water as an area of concern, although this was not reflected at a head office level. This difference of perspectives could be an under-reporting of this aspect of environmental sanitation to the global humanitarian community or a failure of experts to communicate the required response to surface water management in camps for displaced people. Reviewing core humanitarian engineering texts and global standards, this paper sets out the current state of the art and shows that there is a lack of clarity on the ‘ownership’ of the problem and the established responses are disjointed and poorly articulated, especially at field staff level. Since the core texts have been written, there has been a change in the way surface water is being managed in urban areas. Sustainable urban drainage practices may have potential in resource-poor but densely populated situations s...

Sociocultural Determinants to Adoption of Safe Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene Practices in Nyakach, Kisumu County, Kenya: A Descriptive Qualitative Study

Provision of safe water, adequate sanitation, and hygiene has been lauded as one way of preventing diarrheal infections and improving health especially in developing countries. However, lack of safe water, inadequate sanitation, and poor hygiene practices in most parts of rural Kenya have posed a challenge that exposes the populace to diarrhea cases and possible deaths. In this regard, many nongovernmental organizations and governmental agencies have tried to provide water, sanitation, and hygiene services with poor results. This study was conducted using qualitative research methods in Central Nyakach in Kisumu County, Kenya. The methods were focus group discussions (FGD), key informant interviews (KII), and observation of homesteads. The data were then analyzed thematically. Findings revealed that water issues are gendered and its use is socially and culturally categorized. Water storage is affected by traditions such as use of a clay pot, while sanitation and hygiene issues are ritualized and bound by taboos. Latrines are majorly constructed by men and sharing the same with in-laws and older children is prohibited. Children faeces are thrown out in the open fields as a means of disposal and hand washing with soap is nonexistent, since it is believed that doing so would make a person lose the ability to rear livestock. The implications of these findings are that some of these sociocultural practices have a profound effect on health of the population. This affects health care delivery through high incidence rates of disease, encourages “unhealthy” environments through open defecation and pollution, and negates the government’s commitment to national and international policies on universal health care provision.

Coverage of Sanitation Issues in India

Print media plays a crucial role in information distribution and thus enjoys the mileage of being one of the strongest medium of public information. Media plays an important role in our society as its purpose is not only to inform the public about current and past events, but it also determines what we think and worry about. With more in-depth coverage and investigation, this written form of communication creates a longer influence on the minds of the reader. Theory predicts that information provided by print media reflects the media’s incentives to provide news to different types of groups in society, and affects these groups’ influence in policy making. The article analyses the role played by the print media in creating awareness among the Indian public regarding the paramount sanitation issues. The study will use data produced by the different newspapers pertaining to such issues. It is a well established fact that a good percentage of people in India still have no adequate means of disposing their waste. Poorly controlled waste also means daily exposure to an unpleasant environment. Despite the presence of grand public sanitation schemes, waste management remains to be one of the major problems faced by the people. Content analysis is proved to be instrumental in analyzing the content of the major Indian English dailies. This study used content analysis to unveil how much importance newspapers have been giving to sanitation problems and hygiene-related issues. The findings reveal that newspapers have given an utmost importance to the sanitation policies in India.

SWACCHA BHARAT MISSION: MANUAL SCAVENGING, A QUESTION OF HUMAN DIGNITY

Shree Bezwada Wilson, the activist of safaiKarmachariAndolan& recipient of the Magsaysay award for the year 2016 aptly says” I realized we are not doing scavenging because we are illiterate and poor. We are doing it because of the way society is organized” His fight is “When technology has advanced so much, why the work cannot be done mechanically?” When India has committed to a massive Swaccha Bharat Abhiyan making country swaccha by 2nd October 2019, immediate inevitable need is to address the miserable plight of country’s manual scavengers and pay focused attention acknowledging the fact that manual scavenging is a question of human dignity rather than sanitation issues. Even after seven decades since Independence, it is a matter of national shame that thousands of scavenger families still live a socially degrading and inhuman life in the twenty-first century. Mahatma Gandhi, the Father of the Nation, struggled throughout his life to ameliorate the working and living conditions of this section of society and to restore to them their lost human dignity. This article briefly highlights the curse of manual scavenging, weaknesses of the 1993 Law and rehabilitation program, proposed new Bill and suggests Action Plan to liberate and rehabilitate manual scavengers by the end of 2019 by drawing appropriate Road Map.

Taking women’s bodily functions into account in urban planning and policy: public toilets and menstruation

In this paper, it is argued that public toilets policy is a town planning issue, crucial to creating sustainable, efficient, accessible and equitable cities. Ways of integrating toilet provision into city-wide strategic planning policy and local urban design are discussed. The paper first reviews global sanitation issues, with particular reference to the needs of girls and women in respect of toilet provision. Over two billion people lack adequate toilet provision, and women are particularly badly affected. Fifty per cent of the world’s population is urbanised, and, of those, over 50 per cent of urban dwellers live in shanty towns and unplanned settlements, most of which are without adequate sanitation at home, at work and in schools. Fifty per cent of school girls in Africa leave school when menstruation starts, because of lack of school toilets, thus undermining education and development goals. Then comparisons are made with the public toilet situation in the West, with particular reference to inadequate provision in the United Kingdom. Historically, women have been given fewer facilities than men, but arguably their need is greater. A lack of toilets has implications for health and well-being and restricts mobility of an increasingly ageing population, those with disabilities and children, as well as undermining sustainability, transportation, inclusive urban design and regeneration policies.

Evaluation of arts-based interventions to improve awareness of selected hygiene and sanitation issues in slums of Ahmedabad, India

Abstract Slum dwellers have limited access to various services that form the foundation of good health. Thus, there is a need to improve their awareness of health and hygiene issues. This article is based on an assessment of arts-based participatory theatre interventions that aimed at improving health awareness among the slum dwellers of Ahmedabad. A two-phase quasi-experimental research involved measuring the target population’s knowledge ‘before’ the interventions of a pre-determined set of seven performances and repeating the same measurement ‘after’ it. The measurement involved surveys of 600 slum dwellers in two slums, one of which received interventions. An improvement was observed in knowledge pertaining to reasons for illnesses, as well as knowledge about safe drinking water and mosquito-breeding sites. The health campaign showed statistically significant improvement among sources of information for the benefits of hand washing and mosquito control. The three parameters of sources of information also point to ‘health campaign’ by a nongovernmental organization (NGO). This further endorses the effectiveness of the interventions. This research is a contribution in response to the growing need for evidence of the impact of performing arts on public health. Based on positive results, it is recommended that such efforts can be scaled up for health education and awareness purposes.

Comparison of water quality in live shellfish retail holding tanks


 Background: Water quality in live retail shellfish holding tanks are vital in increasing shellfish quality and reducing risk of shellfish-associated outbreaks. Poor holding tank water conditions may not only cause mortality of shellfish, but also allow for harmful pathogens to contaminate the shellfish, proliferate in the holding tanks, and ultimately potentially affect consumer health. Shellfish are processed and handled at a variety of levels at the retail stage. Therefore, the purpose of this research project is to compare water quality in live retail shellfish holding systems between processing plants and retail food markets. Differences may indicate a need for attention at a particular level in order to effectively and efficiently reduce mortality and disease among shellfish, and thus potentially humans as well. Methods: 30 water samples were taken from the two types of locations with the help of the Department of Fisheries and Oceans (DFO), Ministry of Agriculture, and the BCCDC. These samples were tested for parameters including temperature, pH, nitrites, turbidity, and dissolved oxygen using a LaMotte Fresh Water Aquaculture Kit and a HACH 2100P turbidimeter. A two-tailed t-test was used to compare the means of each of the parameters among the two types of locations with live shellfish holding tanks. Results: The mean values for all parameters in both retail and processing met the requirements set by the BCCDC. However, temperature and dissolved oxygen showed statistically significant differences between retail markets and processing facilities. Nitrites, pH, and turbidity showed no statistically significant differences between the two types of locations. Conclusion: Differences in dissolved oxygen may have been due to salt levels, failing recirculation systems, or high levels of organic matter from sanitation issues. Differences in temperature may have been due to differences in holding tank size, or inconsistencies from using two different thermal measuring devices. High levels of nitrites were a concern as well due to overcrowding of holding tanks. More attention may be needed for these issues, especially during certain seasons such as Chinese New Years, in order to lower the risk to public health.

Resource Recovery and Recycling in Sanitation is Key to Health, Water and Food Security

The present study argues that the issue of sanitation and the solutions to it extends far beyond its mere access; any envisioned improvement in sanitation technology must strive to rectify the shortcomings in centralized wastewater treatment wherein end-of-pipe technologies have been favored. It is evident that with the concurrent trends of projected population growth and urbanization, the provisioning of improved sanitation facilities will necessitate greater efforts and socio-technical innovations than those in place today. We thus illustrate that simultaneous provisioning of ‘access’ and ‘improved sanitation’ through urine diversion and resource recovery can help create multiple-win scenarios in developing countries especially in terms of health, food and water security. As a pathway for initiating circularity in flow of resources from sanitation to agriculture, we demonstrate a process that enables continuous recycling of nutrients (urea) following the source separation of urine from a urine diversion toilet. To do this, we look towards cyclical adsorption-desorption systems in a fixed-bed column packed with renewable agro-waste based activated carbon. The study places emphasis on the sorption optimization for which a Box-Behnken experimental design with Response Surface Methodology was applied. It was concluded that a column bed depth of 45.45cm, urine flow rate of 2 L.h-1 and initial concentration of 20% allows 87.53% recovery of urea from human urine.

Nutrient Recovery and Recycling from Human Urine: A Circular Perspective on Sanitation and Food Security

Closed-loop nutrient cycling is a simple, persuasive and elegant approach to realize efficient natural resource management, improved human well-being and long-term food security. In the spirit of sustainable sanitation through nutrient cycling, this study proposes a new pathway to realize resource recovery from anthropogenic waste fractions by the application of physico-chemical separation processes. Microwave Activated Carbon (MAC) prepared from coconut shells (agro-waste) were immobilized on etched glass bead supports and utilized within a continuous flow packed-bed column. Physical adsorption experiments were performed by passing human urine through the column to strip and recover more than 80% of the intrinsic urea. Backwashing of the column was performed to demonstrate the ease of urea-N desorption, reusability of MAC over multiple cycles and the reversible nature of the process. Further nutrient recovery was realized by dephosphatizing the column overflow with MgO to allow phosphate precipitation (>90%) as struvite. Sorption kinetics, behaviour and influence of process parameters were studied by testing the experimental data against Yoon-Nelson, Thomas and Adams-Bohart models. The column adsorption was also numerically optimized using Response Surface Methodology to determine the optimal parameters as: sorbate flow rate – 8.5 L.h-1, urea concentration – 100%, support size – 1 cm and consequently, column capacity of 21.58 g. Nutrient recovery, concentration and recycling from diverted human urine can be seen as a synergistic and circular solution to the issues of sanitation, hygiene, water, and food security.

Greater Jakarta, the world's second largest conurbation – part 2

The past 40 years has seen an astonishing growth of the city of Jakarta, the capital of Indonesia, extending from the core city, which in 1970 housed <5 million people. Today, the main city is home to more than 10 million permanent residents, classifying it as one of the world's 28 megacities, of which 16 are in Asia. The city's population increases by 2·5 million during working days, but physically the city has simply merged with its suburban satellite towns such that Greater Jakarta, generally referred to as Jabodetabek, caters for a population of 29 million, which is expected to increase to 50 million over the next 30 years, putting Greater Jakarta firmly in the metacity category. As elsewhere, Jakarta is grappling with all the technical, administrative and social problems that rapid urbanisation entails, compounded by a problem of serious subsidence of surface sediment brought about by long-term and continuing underground water abstraction. Dealing with this, together with water supply, wastewater, sanitation, solid waste and other utility issues such as power and telecommunication are, and remain, high on the city development agenda for the foreseeable future. This paper looks at these problems and makes recommendations for the future development of Jakarta as a sustainable metacity.

Why gender matters in the solution towards safe sanitation? Reflections from rural India

ABSTRACTWhile the topic of women and water, sanitation and hygiene is a widely accepted concern among academics and activists, it continues to be an issue in developing countries with serious consequences. Based on a qualitative research conducted in rural Uttar Pradesh, India, the paper affirms that sanitation issues for women and girls are compounded by inequitable gender norms that put them at greater risk of experiencing violence and multiple health vulnerabilities. Women, despite having a high demand for safe toilet facilities, continue to practise unsafe sanitation. The findings highlight the role of three structural constraints as the key factors influencing toilet construction and use: poverty, inadequate sanitation policy and its implementation and gender-based power dynamics at the household level. The paper concludes by emphasising the relevance of engendering sanitation programmes and policies by involving women and girls in the planning process to ensure that dignified and gender-sensitive sanitation solutions are developed. The paper also stresses the need to have measures for strengthening and effectively implementing a sanitation policy for the poor and for programmes to work with both men and women to address gender power relations which influence toilet adoption and use.

Perception of Peri-Urban Farmers on Fecal Sludge Compost and Its Utilization: A Case Study of Three Peri-Urban Communities in Ashanti Region of Ghana

ABSTRACTThis study examined the perception of farmers in peri-urban areas on the use of fecal sludge compost as an organic fertilizer to address the issues of sanitation. The specific objectives were to: (1) investigate the farming practices and type of fertilizer used by farmers; (2) assess farmers' knowledge on fecal sludge compost and its utilization; and (3) investigate the socio-cultural and health issues relating to fecal sludge compost. A total of 150 farmers from three communities in two districts of Ashanti region were selected using a random sampling method. Data were collected from each farmer through semi-structured questionnaires. All of the farmers surveyed applied some form of organic or inorganic fertilizer on their farms. The results showed that 28 and 51% of farmers used organic and inorganic fertilizers, respectively, whereas 21% of the farmers used both organic and inorganic fertilizers. Only 34% of the farmers were aware that fecal sludge is a useful source of fertilizer, and only 4% use it to fertilize their farms. Health risk is not the main reason why most of the respondents have a negative attitude towards the use of fecal sludge compost, rather the perception that fecal sludge is total waste and therefore must not be used. The use of fecal sludge compost as organic fertilizer could increase crop yield while reducing the sanitation problem caused by the indiscriminate disposal of fecal sludge into the environment.

No caminho para o urbanismo. Saturnino de Brito e Édouard Imbeaux, trajetórias profissionais entre Brasil e França

O objetivo deste trabalho é estabelecer um diálogo entre duas trajetórias profissionais, a de Saturnino de Brito (1864-1929) e a de Édouard Imbeaux (1861-1943), que privilegiaram a cidade como objeto de ação e de reflexão, as quais são construídas a partir de um conhecimento inovador sobre as questões de higiene e saneamento. A especificidade desses percursos é a associação da prática com a reflexão teórica e sua difusão: estes dois profissionais contribuíram, assim, cada um em seu país, para a construção da disciplina urbanística, especialmente em sua abordagem técnica. O cenário internacional constitui uma dimensão importante de sua ação, que tornou possível a circulação/confronto de saberes técnicos entre Europa e Brasil e contribuiu com a pesquisa de uma resposta concreta e adaptada aos problemas da cidade. A interação do cenário local, nacional e internacional permite trazer um outro olhar sobre as trajetórias profissionais de Saturnino de Brito e Édouard Imbeaux.

Comparative environmental impacts of source-separation systems for domestic wastewater management in rural China

To address issues of poor sanitation and water scarcity in developing countries, innovative wastewater management systems should be proposed, based on considerations of life cycle and local environmental impacts. Source-separation separates urine, feces, and gray water, enhancing the reuse of nutrients, and is considered a promising wastewater treatment method. This study evaluates the life cycle and local environmental impacts of source-separation systems. Each system was set to achieve the same effluent quality as the functional unit. Four scenarios were examined: offsite treatment (B1), onsite treatment (B2), source-separation (A1), and pour-flush toilet use (A2). The study area was a hypothetical village in the municipality of Tianjin in China, which has experienced severe water shortages and poor sanitation. Life cycle impacts such as global warming, acidification, and eutrophication were evaluated using a life cycle assessment (LCA) framework, and direct water use was evaluated as the local impact. The scenarios enhancing nutrient recovery (B2 and A2) showed significant benefit by avoiding mineral fertilizer use; however, the source-separation system (A1) showed the best performance in terms of life cycle environmental impacts, which supports the findings of several previous LCA studies with similar system boundaries. Within the selected framework and assumptions, the results show that the source-separation system had the best environmental performance in terms of direct water use and the lifecycle impact categories.

Healthy vinton: a health impact assessment focused on water and sanitation in a small rural town on the US-Mexico border.

We conducted a Health Impact Assessment (HIA) focused on water and sanitation in Vinton, TX, a small rural town on the U.S./Mexico Border. We present the Vinton HIA as a case study to inform the practice of HIA in rural limited resource communities with higher than average levels of unemployment and poverty, and limited infrastructure. Household surveys, focus groups, and interviews provided quantitative and qualitative data on water sources and quality, sanitation practices, and community health. We found that some of the current water sources in Vinton did not meet drinking water standards for total dissolved solids and arsenic; the majority of septic tanks were not managed properly; and there was a short-term risk of water scarcity due to prolonged drought in the region. Prevalent ailments reported by participants included stomach problems, diarrhea, and skin problems. These ailments can be related to arsenic and/or biological organisms in water. The positive direct and indirect health impacts of improved water and sanitation in Vinton included: reduced gastrointestinal illnesses and skin disorders; improved water quality, quantity, and pressure; reduced risks from failing septic systems; increased property value; potential economic growth; and enhanced quality of life. The negative direct and indirect impacts included: residents’ initial and monthly costs; increased property taxes; increased debt by local government; and the need for ongoing support from changing elected decision makers. The unique challenges in completing this HIA included: (a) limited available data; (b) a culture of fear and distrust among residents; (c) residents’ lack of education, awareness, and civic discourse regarding water and sanitation issues and their impact on public health; and (d) lack of civic discourse and participation in the democratic process. An important outcome of the HIA was the characterization of local water supplies, which motivated and empowered the community members to become more involved in civic discourse concerning their water supplies. Results are transferable to similar low-income rural communities worldwide where residents are lacking in information about their water supplies and in political “voice”.

The Postmodern Sanitation: agro-sanitation business model as a new policy

This article proposes a Postmodern Sanitation concept, based on discussions such as what is necessary to solve the world's current sanitation issues and what are the limitations of the current sanitation concept. The proposed policies of the Postmodern Sanitation concept are: (1) to discuss a sanitation value chain that creates and adds value to human excreta, and products made from human excreta, and build a sanitation business model to drive this sanitation value chain; (2) to design a sanitation business model focusing on incentives for individual toilet users; (3) to analyze current users' value chains to find available potential resources; (4) to connect these potential sanitation resources to the next value chain; (5) to make a financial plan based on market analysis of sanitation products; and (6) to find and organize facilitating organizations to support the individual toilet users' businesses. This concept was applied in the case of a rural area in Burkina Faso, and an agro-sanitation business model was designed based on material flow analysis and value chain analysis.

E-Governance: Silencing Vulnerable Populations

Water and sanitation services in South Africa are characterized by gross inequalities. Despite twenty years of non-racial democracy, poor predominantly black African areas still make due with overburdened and poorly maintained infrastructure. Communicating water and sanitation issues is key to the maintenance and improvement of delivery systems, and the City of Cape Town has promoted SMS based fault reporting as an inexpensive and convenient method for reporting problems to service providers. While it is known that most Capetonians own a mobile phone, less is known about how people use them, and in a city as socially stratified as Cape Town, it is important to know if e-Governance initiatives are accessible to poor and vulnerable populations to avoid further marginalizing them. The purpose of this study was to identify whether marginalized populations in terms of access to water and sanitation, are able to communicate their needs to the municipal government using SMS. We carried out an extensive survey in the township of ImizamoYethu, and found that populations characterized by limited mobility, such as the elderly, disabled and infirm, faced significant barriers to accessing water and sanitation, yet also lacked the technological capacity to communicate their problems to service providers. The results provide insight into the applicability of e-Governance in reducing inequality in societies characterized by extreme social stratification.

Water and sanitation hygiene knowledge, attitude, and practices among household members living in rural setting of India.

Background:Rural population in developing countries face water, sanitation, and hygiene-related health issues. To objectively highlight these issues, we studied the knowledge, attitude, and practices-related to drinking water and sanitation facilities among the rural population of Chennai, India.Materials and Methods:A cross-sectional study was designed involving individuals over 18 years of age living in Thandalam village, Chennai, India. Basic information about sociodemographic profile and existing drinking water and sanitation related knowledge, attitude, and practices was collected using a modified version of previously validated questionnaire and analyzed.Results:Forty-five percent of the participants were not following any methods of water treatment and among them half of the participants felt that water available to them was clean and did not require any additional treatment. Twenty-five percent of the participants surveyed did not have access to toilets inside their household.Conclusion:There is a need for intervention to educate individuals about drinking water treatment methods, sanitation, and hand washing practices.