Ischemia-like Conditions Research Articles

Molecular mechanism of monoamine oxidase A gene regulation under inflammation and ischemia-like conditions: key roles of the transcription factors GATA2, Sp1 and TBP.

Monoamine oxidase A (MAOA) plays important roles in the pathogenesis of several neurological and cardiovascular disorders. The mechanism of transcriptional regulation of MAOA under basal and pathological conditions, however, remains incompletely understood. Here, we report systematic identification and characterization of cis elements and transcription factors that govern the expression of MAOA gene. Extensive computational analysis of MAOA promoter, followed by 5'-promoter deletion/reporter assays, revealed that the -71/-40bp domain was sufficient for its basal transcription. Gel-shift and chromatin immunoprecipitation assays provided evidence of interactions of the transcription factors GATA-binding protein 2 (GATA2), Sp1 and TATA-binding protein (TBP) with this proximal promoter region. Consistently, over-expression of GATA2, Sp1 and TBP augmented MAOA promoter activity in a coordinated manner. In corroboration, siRNA-mediated down-regulation of GATA2/Sp1/TBP repressed the endogenous MAOA expression as well as transfected MAOA promoter activity. Tumor necrosis factor-α and forskolin activated MAOA transcription that was reversed by Sp1 siRNA; in support, tumor necrosis factor-α- and forskolin-induced activities were enhanced by ectopic over-expression of Sp1. On the other hand, MAOA transcription was diminished upon exposure of neuroblasts or cardiac myoblasts to ischemia-like conditions because of reduced binding of GATA2/Sp1/TBP with MAOA promoter. In conclusion, this study revealed previously unknown roles of GATA2, Sp1 and TBP in modulating MAOA expression under basal as well as pathophysiological conditions such as inflammation and ischemia, thus providing new insights into the molecular basis of aberrant MAOA expression in neuronal/cardiovascular disease states. Dysregulation of monoamine oxidase A (MAOA) have been implicated in several behavioral and neuronal disease states. Here, we identified three crucial transcription factors (GATA2, Sp1 and TBP) that regulate MAOA gene expression in a coordinated manner. Aberrant MAOA expression under pathophysiological conditions including inflammation and ischemia is mediated by altered binding of GATA2/Sp1/TBP with MAOA proximal promoter. Thus, these findings provide new insights into pathogenesis of several common diseases. GATA2, GATA-binding protein 2; Sp1, specificity protein 1; TBP, TATA-binding protein.

Role of Akt and Ca2 + on cell permeabilization via connexin43 hemichannels induced by metabolic inhibition

Connexin hemichannels are regulated under physiological and pathological conditions. Metabolic inhibition, a model of ischemia, promotes surface hemichannel activation associated, in part, with increased surface hemichannel levels, but little is known about its underlying mechanism. Here, we investigated the role of Akt on the connexin43 hemichannel's response induced by metabolic inhibition. In HeLa cells stably transfected with rat connexin43 fused to EGFP (HeLa43 cells), metabolic inhibition induced a transient Akt activation necessary to increase the amount of surface connexin43. The increase in levels of surface connexin43 was also found to depend on an intracellular Ca2+ signal increase that was partially mediated by Akt activation. However, the metabolic inhibition-induced Akt activation was not significantly affected by intracellular Ca2+ chelation. The Akt-dependent increase in connexin43 hemichannel activity in HeLa43 cells also occurred after oxygen-glucose deprivation, another ischemia-like condition, and in cultured cortical astrocytes (endogenous connexin43 expression system) under metabolic inhibition. Since opening of hemichannels has been shown to accelerate cell death, inhibition of Akt-dependent phosphorylation of connexin43 hemichannels could reduce cell death induced by ischemia/reperfusion.

Hypoxic Preconditioning Protects Cord Blood-Mesenchymal Stromal Cells from Ischemic Damage in Vitro

Objectives: We have previously shown that cord blood mesenchymal stromal cell (CBMSC)-secreted factors act anti-apoptotic and pro-mitotic on endothelial cells and cardiomyocytes to ischemia-like conditions. However CB-MSCs themselves suffer ischemic damage in the infarcted heart, hampering their potential clinical efficacy. To increase CB-MSC tolerance to ischemia, we developed a specific hypoxic preconditioning (HP) protocol and investigated the molecular mechanisms involved. Methods: Human CBMSCs were subjected to different durations (12, 24 or 36 hour) of hypoxic preconditioning (1% O2 in glucose/serum-containing medium) prior to a final phase of simulated ischemia (24 hour, 1% O2 in glucose/serum-free medium). Cell loss, metabolic activity (WST-8 conversion), apoptosis (nuclear fragmentation and shrinking) and proliferation (BrdU incorporation) were measured. The effects of HP on Akt-, ERK1/2 and STAT3-phosphorylation and Bcl-2, Bcl-XL and Bag-1 mRNA expression were determined by Western blot and quantitative real time PCR. Results: Ischemic damage of CBMSCs was lowest after 24 hour HP. Here, the percentage of remaining cells was higher (74 ± 7% versus non-HP 39 ± 11%, p < 0.05) and metabolic activity was enhanced (35 ± 2% versus non-HP 18 ± 6%, p < 0.05). Nuclear fragmentation index was lower (11.9 ± 0.2 versus non-HP 13.8 ± 0.3, p < 0.05), nuclear shrinking was less pronounced (mean nuclear area 179 ± 5 µm2 versus non-HP 155 ± 5 µm2, p < 0.05), and the proliferation index was enhanced (49 ± 1 versus non-HP 16 ± 3, p < 0.05). While phosphorylation of Akt and STAT3 was increased in preconditioned cells, ERK1/2 phosphorylation and Bcl-2 mRNA expression were downregulated in response to HP, and mRNA expression of Bcl-XL and Bag-1 was not altered. Conclusions: Hypoxic preconditioning protects CBMSCs from the deleterious impact of combined oxygen/glucose/serum-deprivation via STAT3-dependent signaling. This might by a useful strategy to increase their tolerance to ischemia and improve their therapeutic efficacy in clinical applications.

NURR1 involvement in recombinant tissue-type plasminogen activator treatment complications after ischemic stroke.

Despite the effectiveness of recombinant tissue-type plasminogen activator (r-tPA) during the acute phase of ischemic stroke, the therapy remains limited by a narrow time window and the occurrence of occasional vascular side effects, particularly symptomatic hemorrhages. Our aim was to investigate the mechanisms underlying the endothelial damage resulting from r-tPA treatment in ischemic-like conditions. Microarray analyses were performed on cerebral endothelial cells submitted to r-tPA treatment during oxygen and glucose deprivation to identify novel biomarker candidates. Validation was then performed in vivo in a mouse model of thromboembolic stroke and culminated in an analysis in a clinical cohort of patients with ischemic stroke treated with thrombolysis. The transcription factor NURR1 (NR4A2) was identified as a downstream target induced by r-tPA during oxygen and glucose deprivation. Silencing NURR1 expression reversed the endothelial-toxicity induced by the combined stimuli, a protective effect attributable to reduced levels of proinflammatory mediators, such as nuclear factor-kappa-beta 2 (NF-κ-B2), interleukin 1 alpha (IL1α), intercellular adhesion molecule 1 (ICAM1), SMAD family member 3 (SMAD3), colony stimulating factor 2 (granulocyte-macrophage; CSF2). The detrimental effect of delayed thrombolysis, in conditions in which NURR1 gene expression was enhanced, was confirmed in the preclinical stroke model. Finally, we determined that patients with stroke who had a symptomatic hemorrhagic transformation after r-tPA treatment exhibited higher baseline serum NURR1 levels than did patients with an asymptomatic or absence of cerebral bleedings. Our results suggest that NURR1 upregulation by r-tPA during ischemic stroke is associated with endothelial dysfunction and inflammation and the enhancement of hemorrhagic complications associated to thrombolysis.

Neuroprotection by acetyl-11-keto-β-Boswellic acid, in ischemic brain injury involves the Nrf2/HO-1 defense pathway.

Stroke is a complex disease involved oxidative stress-related pathways in its pathogenesis. The nuclear factor erythroid-2-related factor 2 (Nrf2)/heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) pathway has been considered a potential target for neuroprotection in stroke. Acetyl-11-Keto-β-Boswellic Acid (AKBA) is an active triterpenoid compound from the extract of Boswellia serrate. The present study was to determine whether AKBA, a novel Nrf2 activator, can protect against cerebral ischemic injury. The stroke model was produced in Sprague–Dawley rats via middle cerebral artery occlusion. To model ischemia-like conditions in vitro, primary cultured cortical neurons were exposed to transient oxygen and glucose deprivation (OGD). Treatment of AKBA significantly reduced infarct volumes and apoptotic cells, and also increased neurologic scores by elevating the Nrf2 and HO-1 expression in brain tissues in middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) rats at 48 hours post reperfusion. In primary cultured neurons, AKBA increased the Nrf2 and HO-1 expression, which provided protection against OGD-induced oxidative insult. Additionally, AKBA treatment increased Nrf2 binding activity to antioxidant-response elements (ARE). The protective effect of AKBA was attenuated by knockdown of Nrf2 or HO-1. In conclusion, these findings provide evidence that AKBA protects neurons against ischemic injury, and this neuroprotective effect involves the Nrf2/HO-1 pathway.

Effect of ecto-5'-nucleotidase (eN) in astrocytes on adenosine and inosine formation.

ATP is a gliotransmitter released from astrocytes. Extracellularly, ATP is metabolized by a series of enzymes, including ecto-5′-nucleotidase (eN; also known as CD73) which is encoded by the gene 5NTE and functions to form adenosine (ADO) from adenosine monophosphate (AMP). Under ischemic conditions, ADO levels in brain increase up to 100-fold. We used astrocytes cultured from 5NTE +/+ or 5NTE −/− mice to evaluate the role of eN expressed by astrocytes in the production of ADO and inosine (INO) in response to glucose deprivation (GD) or oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD). We also used co-cultures of these astrocytes with wild-type neurons to evaluate the role of eN expressed by astrocytes in the production of ADO and INO in response to GD, OGD, or N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) treatment. As expected, astrocytes from 5NTE +/+ mice produced adenosine from AMP; the eN inhibitor α,β-methylene ADP (AOPCP) decreased ADO formation. In contrast, little ADO was formed by astrocytes from 5NTE −/− mice and AOPCP had no significant effect. GD and OGD treatment of 5NTE +/+ astrocytes and 5NTE +/+ astrocyte-neuron co-cultures produced extracellular ADO levels that were inhibited by AOPCP. In contrast, these conditions did not evoke ADO production in cultures containing 5NTE −/− astrocytes. NMDA treatment produced similar increases in ADO in both 5NTE +/+ and 5NTE −/− astrocyte-neuron co-cultures; dipyridamole (DPR) but not AOPCP inhibited ADO production. These results indicate that eN is prominent in the formation of ADO from astrocytes but in astrocyte-neuron co-cultures, other enzymes or pathways contribute to rising ADO levels in ischemia-like conditions.

Fine tuning of the UPR by the ubiquitin ligases Siah1/2.

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) responds to changes in intracellular homeostasis through activation of the unfolded protein response (UPR). Yet, it is not known how UPR-signaling coordinates adaptation versus cell death. Previous studies suggested that signaling through PERK/ATF4 is required for cell death. We show that high levels of ER stress (i.e., ischemia-like conditions) induce transcription of the ubiquitin ligases Siah1/2 through the UPR transducers PERK/ATF4 and IRE1/sXBP1. In turn, Siah1/2 attenuates proline hydroxylation of ATF4, resulting in its stabilization, thereby augmenting ER stress output. Conversely, ATF4 activation is reduced upon Siah1/2 KD in cultured cells, which attenuates ER stress-induced cell death. Notably, Siah1a+/−::Siah2−/− mice subjected to neuronal ischemia exhibited smaller infarct volume and were protected from ischemia-induced death, compared with the wild type (WT) mice. In all, Siah1/2 constitutes an obligatory fine-tuning mechanism that predisposes cells to death under severe ER stress conditions.

ATF3 is a novel nuclear marker for migrating ependymal stem cells in the rat spinal cord

The present study identified ATF3 as a novel dynamic marker for ependymal stem/progenitor cells (nestin, vimentin and SOX2 positive) around the central canal of the neonatal or adult rat spinal cord. While quiescent ependymal cells showed cytoplasmic ATF3 expression, during 6–24h in vitro these cells mobilized and acquired intense nuclear ATF3 staining. Their migratory pattern followed a centrifugal pathway toward the dorsal and ventral funiculi, reminiscent of the rostral migratory stream of the brain subventricular stem cells. Thus, the chain cell formation was, by analogy, termed funicular migratory stream (FMS). The FMS process preceded the strong proliferation of ependymal cells occurring only after 24h in vitro. Pharmacological inhibition of MAPK-p38 and JNK/c-Jun (upstream effectors of ATF3 activation) prevented the FMS mobilization of ATF3 nuclear-positive cells. Excitotoxicity or ischemia-like conditions, reported to evoke neuronal and glial injury, did not further enhance migration of ependymal cells at 24h, suggesting that, at this early stage of damage, the FMS phenomenon had peaked and that more extensive repair processes are delayed beyond this time point. ATF3 is, therefore, useful to identify activation and migration of endogenous stem cells of the rat spinal cord in vitro.

Limitations of Mild, Moderate, and Profound Hypothermia in Protecting Developing Hippocampal Neurons After Simulated Ischemia.

Mild hypothermia (33°C-34°C) after cerebral ischemia in intact animals or ischemia-like conditions in vitro reduces neuron death. However, it is now clear that more profound hypothermia or delayed hypothermia may not provide significant protection. To further define the limitations of hypothermia after cerebral ischemia, we used hippocampal slice cultures to examine the effects of various degrees, durations, and delays of hypothermia on neuron death after an ischemia-like insult. Organotypic cultures of the hippocampus from 7- to 8 day-old rat pups were cooled to 32°C, 23°C, 17°C, or 4°C immediately or after a 2-4 hour delay from an injurious insult of oxygen and glucose deprivation (OGD). Cell death in CA1, CA3 and dentate regions of the cultures was assessed 24 hours later with SYTOX® or propidium iodide, both of which are fluorescent markers labeling damaged cells. OGD caused extensive cell death in CA1, CA3, and dentate regions of the hippocampal cultures. Hypothermia (32°C, 23°C and 17°C) for 4-6 hours immediately after OGD was protective at 24 hours, but when hypothermia was applied for longer periods or delayed after OGD, no protection or increased death was seen. Ultra-profound hypothermia (4°C) increased cell death in all cell areas of the hippocampus even when after a milder insult of only hypoxia. In an in vitro model of recovery after an ischemia-like insult, mild to profound hypothermia is protective only when applied without delay and for limited periods of time (6-8 hours). Longer durations of hypothermia, or delayed application of the hypothermia can increase neuron death. These findings may have implications for clinical uses of therapeutic hypothermia after hypoxic or ischemic insults, and suggest that further work is needed to elucidate the limitations of hypothermia as a protective treatment after ischemic stress.

Evidence that collaboration between HIF-1α and Notch-1 promotes neuronal cell death in ischemic stroke

Recent findings suggest that Notch-1 signaling contributes to neuronal death in ischemic stroke, but the underlying mechanisms are unknown. Hypoxia inducible factor-1α (HIF-1α), a global regulator of cellular responses to hypoxia, can interact with Notch and modulate its signaling during hypoxic stress. Here we show that Notch signaling interacts with the HIF-1α pathway in the process of ischemic neuronal death. We found that a chemical inhibitor of the Notch-activating enzyme, γ-secretase, and a HIF-1α inhibitor, protect cultured cortical neurons against ischemic stress, and combined inhibition of Notch-1 and HIF-1α further decreased neuronal death. HIF-1α and Notch intracellular domain (NICD) are co-expressed in the neuronal nucleus, and co-immunoprecipitated in cultured neurons and in brain tissue from mice subjected to focal ischemic stroke. Overexpression of NICD and HIF-1α in cultured human neural cells enhanced cell death under ischemia-like conditions, and a HIF-1α inhibitor rescued the cells. RNA interference-mediated depletion of endogenous NICD and HIF-1α also decreased cell death under ischemia-like conditions. Finally, mice treated with inhibitors of γ-secretase and HIF-1α exhibited improved outcome after focal ischemic stroke, with combined treatment being superior to individual treatments. Additional findings suggest that the NICD and HIF-1α collaborate to engage pro-inflammatory and apoptotic signaling pathways in stroke.

Coordinated Transcriptional Regulation of Hspa1a Gene by Multiple Transcription Factors: Crucial Roles for HSF-1, NF-Y, NF-κB, and CREB

Although the transcript level of inducible heat shock protein 70.3 (Hsp70.3, also known as Hspa1a) is altered in various disease states, its transcriptional regulation remains incompletely understood. Here, we systematically analyzed the Hspa1a promoter to identify major cis elements and transcription factors that may govern the constitutive/inducible gene expression. Computational analyses coupled with extensive in vitro (promoter–reporter activity and electrophoretic mobility shift assays) and in vivo (chromatin immunoprecipitation assays) revealed interaction of several transcription factors with Hspa1a promoter motifs: HSF-1 (heat shock factor 1) at −114/−97bp and −788/−777bp, NF-Y (nuclear transcription factor Y) at −73/−58bp, NF-κB (nuclear factor kappa B) at −133/−124bp, and CREB (cAMP response element binding protein) at −483/−476bp. Consistently, siRNA (small interfering RNA)-mediated down-regulation of each of these transcription factors caused substantial reduction of endogenous Hspa1a expression. Heat-shock-induced activation of Hspa1a was coordinately regulated by HSF-1 and NF-Y/NF-κB. The Hspa1a expression was augmented by TNF-α (tumor necrosis factor-alpha) and forskolin in NF-κB and CREB-dependent manners, respectively. NF-κB and CREB also activated Hspa1a transcription in cardiac myoblasts upon exposure to ischemia-like conditions. Taken together, this study discovered previously unknown roles for NF-κB and CREB to regulate Hspa1a expression and a coordinated action by several transcription factors for Hspa1a transactivation under heat-shock/ischemia-like conditions and thereby provided new insights into the mechanism of Hspa1a regulation.

Intravenous immunoglobulin suppresses NLRP1 and NLRP3 inflammasome-mediated neuronal death in ischemic stroke

Multi-protein complexes called inflammasomes have recently been identified and shown to contribute to cell death in tissue injury. Intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIg) is an FDA-approved therapeutic modality used for various inflammatory diseases. The objective of this study is to investigate dynamic responses of the NLRP1 and NLRP3 inflammasomes in stroke and to determine whether the NLRP1 and NLRP3 inflammasomes can be targeted with IVIg for therapeutic intervention. Primary cortical neurons were subjected to glucose deprivation (GD), oxygen–glucose deprivation (OGD) or simulated ischemia-reperfusion (I/R). Ischemic stroke was induced in C57BL/6J mice by middle cerebral artery occlusion, followed by reperfusion. Neurological assessment was performed, brain tissue damage was quantified, and NLRP1 and NLRP3 inflammasome protein levels were evaluated. NLRP1 and NLRP3 inflammasome components were also analyzed in postmortem brain tissue samples from stroke patients. Ischemia-like conditions increased the levels of NLRP1 and NLRP3 inflammasome proteins, and IL-1β and IL-18, in primary cortical neurons. Similarly, levels of NLRP1 and NLRP3 inflammasome proteins, IL-1β and IL-18 were elevated in ipsilateral brain tissues of cerebral I/R mice and stroke patients. Caspase-1 inhibitor treatment protected cultured cortical neurons and brain cells in vivo in experimental stroke models. IVIg treatment protected neurons in experimental stroke models by a mechanism involving suppression of NLRP1 and NLRP3 inflammasome activity. Our findings provide evidence that the NLRP1 and NLRP3 inflammasomes have a major role in neuronal cell death and behavioral deficits in stroke. We also identified NLRP1 and NLRP3 inflammasome inhibition as a novel mechanism by which IVIg can protect brain cells against ischemic damage, suggesting a potential clinical benefit of therapeutic interventions that target inflammasome assembly and activity.

Calsenilin Contributes to Neuronal Cell Death in Ischemic Stroke

Calsenilin is a calcium sensor protein that interacts with presenilin and increases calcium-triggered neuronal apoptosis, and γ-secretase activity. Notch is a cell surface receptor that regulates cell-fate decisions and synaptic plasticity in brain. The aim of the present study was to characterize the role of calsenilin as a regulator of the γ-secretase cleavage of Notch in ischemic stroke. Here, we determined the modulation of expression level and cellular distribution of calsenilin in neurons subjected to ischemic-like conditions. The levels of calsenilin and presenilin were increased in primary neurons after oxygen and glucose deprivation. Furthermore, calsenilin was found to enhance the γ-secretase cleavage of Notch and to contribute to cell death under ischemia-like conditions. The inhibition of γ-secretase activity and a presenilin deficiency were both found to protect against calsenilin-mediated ischemic neuronal death. The expression of calsenilin was found to be increased in brain following experimental ischemic stroke. These findings establish a specific molecular mechanism by which the induction of calsenilin enhances Notch activation in ischemic stroke, and identify calsenilin as an upstream of the γ-secretase cleavage of Notch.

Zn2+‐induced ERK activation mediates PARP‐1‐dependent ischemic‐reoxygenation damage to oligodendrocytes

Much of the cell death following episodes of anoxia and ischemia in the mammalian central nervous system has been attributed to extracellular accumulation of glutamate and ATP, which causes a rise in [Ca(2+)](i), loss of mitochondrial potential, and cell death. However, restoration of blood flow and reoxygenation are frequently associated with exacerbation of tissue injury (the oxygen paradox). Herein we describe a novel signaling pathway that is activated during ischemia-like conditions (oxygen and glucose deprivation; OGD) and contributes to ischemia-induced oligodendroglial cell death. OGD induced a retarded and sustained increase in extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2) phosphorylation after restoring glucose and O(2) (reperfusion-like conditions). Blocking the ERK1/2 pathway with the MEK inhibitor UO126 largely protected oligodendrocytes against ischemic insults. ERK1/2 activation was blocked by the high-affinity Zn(2+) chelator TPEN, but not by antagonists of AMPA/kainate or P2X7 receptors that were previously shown to be involved in ischemic oligodendroglial cell death. Using a high-affinity Zn(2+) probe, we showed that ischemia induced an intracellular Zn(2+) rise in oligodendrocytes, and that incubation with TPEN prevented mitochondrial depolarization and ROS generation after ischemia. Accordingly, exposure to TPEN and the antioxidant Trolox reduced ischemia-induced oligodendrocyte death. Moreover, UO126 blocked the ischemia-induced increase in poly-[ADP]-ribosylation of proteins, and the poly[ADP]-ribose polymerase 1 (PARP-1) inhibitor DPQ significantly inhibited ischemia-induced oligodendroglial cell death-demonstrating that PARP-1 was required downstream in the Zn(2+)-ERK oligodendrocyte cell death pathway. Chelation of cytosolic Zn(2+), blocking ERK signaling, and antioxidants may be beneficial for treating CNS white matter ischemia-reperfusion injury. Importantly, all the inhibitors of this pathway protected oligodendrocytes when applied after the ischemic insult.

Effects of St John's wort and its active constituents, hypericin and hyperforin, on isolated rat urinary bladder

To investigate the effect of St John's wort (SJW) and its active constituents hypericin and hyperforin on detrusor smooth muscle contractility and their possible neuroprotective role against ischaemic-like conditions, which could arise during overactive bladder disease. In whole bladders, intrinsic nerves underwent electrical field stimulation (EFS). The effect of drugs on the contractile response and its recovery in reperfusion phase (R) was monitored at different concentrations during 1 or 2 h of anoxia-glucopenia (A-G) and the first 30 min of R. The effects of the drugs were also investigated on rat detrusor muscle strips contracted with carbachol, KCl and electrically. SJW has spasmolytic activity, which increases with increasing concentration and it worsens the damage induced by A-G/R on rat urinary bladder. Hypericin and hyperforin had no effect during ischemic-like conditions but they both exert a dual modulation of rat detrusor strips contraction. At high micromolar concentrations they showed a relaxing effect, but at submicromolar range hypericin increased the plasma membrane depolarisation and hyperforin showed a stimulatory effect on the cholinergic system. The results of our study showed that SJW and its constituents could modulate urinary bladder contractility and even worsen A-G/R injury.

Transient ischemia induces massive nuclear accumulation of SUMO2/3-conjugated proteins in spinal cord neurons

The objective of this study is to determine whether transient spinal cord ischemia activates small ubiquitin-like modifier (SUMO1-3) conjugation, a post-translational protein modification that protects neurons from ischemia-like conditions. Mice were subjected to 8-12 min of spinal cord ischemia and 3-24 h of recovery using a newly developed experimental model. To characterize the model, activation of stress response pathways induced after spinal cord ischemia, previously observed in other experimental models, was verified by western blot analysis. Levels and subcellular localization of SUMO-conjugated proteins in spinal cords were evaluated by western blot analysis and immunohistochemistry, respectively. Following transient spinal cord ischemia, stress responses were activated as indicated by increased phosphorylation of eukaryotic initiation factor 2 (eIF2α), extracellular signal-regulated kinases (ERK1/2) and Akt. SUMO1 conjugation was not altered, but a selective rise in levels of SUMO2/3-conjugated proteins occurred, peaking at 6 h reperfusion. The marked activation of SUMO2/3 conjugation was a neuronal response to ischemia, as indicated by co-localization with the neuronal marker NeuN, and was associated with nuclear accumulation of SUMO2/3-conjugated proteins. Our study suggests that spinal cord neurons respond to ischemic stress by activation of SUMO2/3 conjugation. Many of the identified SUMO target proteins are transcription factors and other nuclear proteins involved in gene expression and genome stability. It is therefore concluded that the post-ischemic activation of SUMO2/3 conjugation may define the fate of neurons exposed to a transient interruption of blood supply, and that this pathway could be a therapeutic target to increase the resistance of spinal cord neurons to transient ischemia.

Intravenous immunoglobulin protects neurons against amyloid beta‐peptide toxicity and ischemic stroke by attenuating multiple cell death pathways

Intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIg) preparations obtained by fractionating blood plasma, are increasingly being used increasingly as an effective therapeutic agent in treatment of several inflammatory diseases. Its use as a potential therapeutic agent for treatment of stroke and Alzheimer's disease has been proposed, but little is known about the neuroprotective mechanisms of IVIg. In this study, we investigated the effect of IVIg on downstream signaling pathways that are involved in neuronal cell death in experimental models of stroke and Alzheimer's disease. Treatment of cultured neurons with IVIg reduced simulated ischemia- and amyloid βpeptide (Aβ)-induced caspase 3 cleavage, and phosphorylation of the cell death-associated kinases p38MAPK, c-Jun NH2 -terminal kinase and p65, in vitro. Additionally, Aβ-induced accumulation of the lipid peroxidation product 4-hydroxynonenal was attenuated in neurons treated with IVIg. IVIg treatment also up-regulated the anti-apoptotic protein, Bcl2 in cortical neurons under ischemia-like conditions and exposure to Aβ. Treatment of mice with IVIg reduced neuronal cell loss, apoptosis and infarct size, and improved functional outcome in a model of focal ischemic stroke. Together, these results indicate that IVIg acts directly on neurons to protect them against ischemic stroke and Aβ-induced neuronal apoptosis by inhibiting cell death pathways and by elevating levels of the anti-apoptotic protein Bcl2.

17β-Estradiol prevents cell death and mitochondrial dysfunction by an estrogen receptor-dependent mechanism in astrocytes after oxygen–glucose deprivation/reperfusion

17β-Estradiol (E2) has been shown to protect against ischemic brain injury, yet its targets and the mechanisms are unclear. E2 may exert multiple regulatory actions on astrocytes that may greatly contribute to its ability to protect the brain. Mitochondria are recognized as playing central roles in the development of injury during ischemia. Increasing evidence indicates that mitochondrial mechanisms are critically involved in E2-mediated protection. In this study, the effects of E2 and the role of mitochondria were evaluated in primary cultures of astrocytes subjected to an ischemia-like condition of oxygen–glucose deprivation (OGD)/reperfusion. We showed that E2 treatment significantly protects against OGD/reperfusion-induced cell death as determined by cell viability, apoptosis, and lactate dehydrogenase leakage. The protective effects of E2 on astrocytic survival were blocked by an estrogen receptor (ER) antagonist (ICI-182,780) and were mimicked by an ER agonist selective for ERα (PPT), but not by an ER agonist selective for ERβ (DPN). OGD/reperfusion provoked mitochondrial dysfunction as manifested by an increase in cellular reactive oxygen species production, loss of mitochondrial membrane potential, and depletion of ATP. E2 pretreatment significantly inhibited OGD/reperfusion-induced mitochondrial dysfunction, and this effect was also blocked by ICI-182,780. Therefore, we conclude that E2 provides direct protection to astrocytes from ischemic injury by an ER-dependent mechanism, highlighting an important role for ERα. Estrogen protects against mitochondrial dysfunction at the early phase of ischemic injury. However, overall implications for protection against brain ischemia and its complex sequelae await further exploration.

Gene Expression Suggests Spontaneously Hypertensive Rats May Have Altered Metabolism and Reduced Hypoxic Tolerance

Cerebral small vessel disease (SVD) is an important cause of stroke, cognitive decline and vascular dementia (VaD). It is associated with diffuse white matter abnormalities and small deep cerebral ischemic infarcts. The molecular mechanisms involved in the development and progression of SVD are unclear. As hypertension is a major risk factor for developing SVD, Spontaneously Hypertensive Rats (SHR) are considered an appropriate experimental model for SVD. Prior work suggested an imbalance between the number of blood microvessels and astrocytes at the level of the neurovascular unit in 2-month-old SHR, leading to neuronal hypoxia in the brain of 9-month-old animals. To identify genes and pathways involved in the development of SVD, we compared the gene expression profile in the cortex of 2 and 9-month-old of SHR with age-matched normotensive Wistar Kyoto (WKY) rats using microarray-based technology. The results revealed significant differences in expression of genes involved in energy and lipid metabolisms, mitochondrial functions, oxidative stress and ischemic responses between both groups. These results strongly suggest that SHR suffer from chronic hypoxia, and therefore are unable to tolerate ischemia-like conditions, and are more vulnerable to high-energy needs than WKY. This molecular analysis gives new insights about pathways accounting for the development of SVD.

Asynchronously Enhanced Spiking Activity of Ischemic Neuronal Networks

Cerebral ischemia causes the depletion of oxygen and nutrition from brain tissues, and when persistent, results in irreversible damage to the cell function and survival. The cellular response to ischemic conditions and its mechanisms have been investigated widely in in vivo and in vitro experimental models, yet no study has addressed the response of a whole neuronal network to energy deprivation with the single-cell resolution. Observations at the level of network are necessary, because the activity of individual neurons is nonlinearly integrated through a network and thereby gives rise to unexpectedly complex dynamics. Here we used functional multineuron calcium imaging (fMCI), an optical recording technique with high temporal and spatial resolution, to visualize the activity of neuron populations in hippocampus CA1 region under ischemia-like conditions ex vivo. We found that, although neurons responded to oxygen and glucose deprivation with an increase in the event frequency, they maintained an asynchronous network state. This is in contrast with other well known pathological states, in which the network hyperexcitability is usually accompanied by an increase in synchrony. We suggest that under ischemic conditions, at least to some time point, the neuronal network maintains the excitatory and inhibitory balance as a whole, whether actively or as a consequence of the cellular response to energy deprivation.